[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The highest perfection of the paintings lies foremost therein, that these five chief principles meet eachother so pleasantly in the work and coincide so well with eachother, that they extent a certain kind of agreeability or convenance (which are commonly called the Grace and the Charm [NDR: both would be translated as Grace in English] of the paintings): As such this Grace is nothing else in nature, than a sweet and rather friendly harmony of all sorts of perfections combined in one piece of work: It is the best collection of the very best things (…) Seen that the spirit of the Invention tends to sweetly seduce our mind, that neatnes of the Proportion tends to capably pull our eyes towards it, that the adequate use of colours tends to confuse our fantasy extraordinarily by a pleasant deceit, that the liveliness of the mouvement tends to enchant our soul powerfully, that the order of the composition tends to instruct our senses in a rather miraculous way; how than can the Painting not spread a remarkable power in our hearts, in which all these principles can be found together:

While moving towards the conclusion of the third Book, Junius explains that the perfection (volmaaktheid) of an art work lies in the agreement (overeenstemming) of the five chief principles (hoofdstuk), as described in the previous chapters. He uses different terms for this perfection: aangenaamheid (agreeability), propriety (welstand), grace (gratie), charm (bevalligheid). He goes on to list the most perfect state of the different principles: spirit (geestigheid) of invention, neatness (netheid) of proportion, an adequate use (bekwaamheid) of colours, liveliness (levendigheid) of the movements and order (ordentelijkheid) in the composition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Apelles knew oustandingly well to moderate in all that the Art is concerned: As such he thought it also unadvisable to seduce the eyes of the spectators too much with the cheerfulness of stimulating bright colours; but he tended to varnice his completed pieces with an inimitable stroke with such a thin ink, that the excessive glowing of colours was tempered by it, that his pieces were protected from dust and dirt by this substance and that one could only perceive the covering with this ink from up close. He has had reason enough for it, says Plinius {…}, as he attempted to smother and darken the lustre of his shining colours a little bit, knowing well that the glow of it would not so easily bore the eyes of the spectators, when they only look at the brightly sparkling colours from a distance as through a mirror-stone.

APELLES
PLINIUS, L'Ancien

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The adequate expression of the strongest passions and the most moving stirrings tend to only spring forth abundantly from an excited and moved heart, as from a lively rich source, and spread itself so powerful over the whole work, that because of the sweet violence of a pleasing force the spectators briefly feel in their hearts the same movements that the working Artist has felt.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such the Painting, which does not incite surprise in the hearts of the spectators, barely deserves the mere name of a Painting; just like the Art-loving men do not accept any other sincere Painters, than those who express their profound learned ideas in the most abundant, proportioned, enjoyable, lively, orderly and graceful manner.

This section is not included in the Latin edition of 1637. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such the improvement is the only way to perfection; and not without reason it is insisted on, that the brush serves the Art both with the spreading and application [NDR: of paint]. The improvement, says Quintilianus {…}, consists in the adding, the deducting, the changing. The adding and the deducting is not even closely as hard, also a bad simple judgement tends to perform this reasonably well: On the other hand it requires a double effort to put the swelling things down, to uplift the sinking things, to bind the exuberantly diverging things, to restore the disorderly things in their right place, to connect the carelessly dispersed things to each other, to tame the exaggerated things; because we should not only reject that which pleased us at first, but we should also discover that which did not even occur to us before. As such it is undoubtedly the best way of improvement that one puts the first drawing aside for a considerable time, to then take the work again in hand after such a pause as if it is something new and produced by someone else: Otherwise we should fear that we will stay to smitten about our fresh invention, as about a new born fruit [NDR: baby].

QUINTILIANUS

Junius remarks that an artist can use his brush (‘penseel’) to either further spreading out of the paint (‘uitstrijken’) or instead adding more paint (‘aanstrijken’). As such, he describes different functions of the brush. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] …A painter tends to simultaneously easily discern the great number of so many and different colours, which he has in front of himself in order to compose his Portrait, and busy himself with an able hand and eye amongst the proposed wax-paints and his commenced work. Because just like one only has to deal with some certain letters in writing one or the other word, without messing up the whole ABC, as such one only needs to apply the most necessary colours, after the demand of an Artful judgement, to compose a Painting, without suddenly flinging the whole number of so many different paints blindly on the painting. Only those Painters are thought to be the best, says Greg. Nazianzenus {…}, who paint the true and lively similitude of the created things in their paintings: the Others on the other hand, who show nothing but a painted storm in their works after the vain mixing of many rather good and entertaining colours, as they diverge further from the true Art-practice, as such one may not give them this honest name with any appearance of reason.

GREGORIUS NAZIANZENUS
SENECA

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The main task of a good Painter then consists therein, that he capably mixes his colours, according to the guideline by Lucianus, that he applies them appropriately and shades them in an acceptable manner. Which is then impossible unless he prepares a good panel or an apt canvas. Plinius explains to us […] of what type of wood the old Artists made the boards or panels on which they painted. Theophrastus also […] tells us in particular which type of wood they previously chose for such a use. Just like it is clear that the Artists tended to carefully pick the most apt wood, as such we learn from Ioannes Grammaticus that it was not all the same to them which canvas they used for the composing of their work.

GRAMMATIKOS, Joannes
LUCIANUS DE SAMOSATE
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
THÉOPHRASTOS

In the Latin edition of 1637, this term is described as: 'adjectionem facere'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Now we finally reach the Magnificence or stateliness, which can commonly be found in a carefully considered Invention, seen that it always provides the Invention with a remarkable distinction, when the Artist is found to have carefully observed the truth, occasion and discretion in it. Because just like the whole Art of Painting does not amount to much unless it is accompanied by a remarkable modesty, moving the spectators by a pleasant appearance of an excellent grace, as such she may not lean too much on a affected amusement of an overworked neatness, as the greatest delight of the whole work is blocked and diminished by such decoration, this tends to also make the Artists themselves loose the respect of her Art, when the spectators begin to suspect the criticism of the all too careful jewel, that it is but affectation, and not real magnificence, that one finds in the work, that is, if the Art-loving spectators understand, that the Artist has tried to fill his work just with the artificial appearance of stateliness and not with stateliness itself. It happens daily that many, lacking the knowledge and experience that is demanded for this curious meticulous Art, busily build castles in the sky, so that they do not appear to crawl on the ground like other common artisans.

Junius describes the importance and characteristics of magnificence (magnificentie), also called stateliness (statigheid), in an art work. He explains that it should entail modesty (stemmigheid), grace (bevalligheid) and not too much unnecessary ornament (opghepronckte verlustinghe; optoyssel; affectatie) or extreme neatness. An artist needs knowledge (kennis) and experience (ervaring) to obtain the right level of magnificence in his work. In this citation, Junius uses the terms ‘statigheid’, and to a lesser degree ‘achtbaarheid’ and ‘aanzien’ as equivalents for magnificence. In Dutch, Junius uses a noun and adjective: 'sonderlinghe aensienlickheyd', to translate the Latin '‘gratiam auctoritatemque’, in the English edition it is also composed of a noun and adjective: ‘wonderfull great authoritie’. I would like to thank Wieneke Jansen (Leiden University) for her precious assistance with regard to the Latin and English translation of this citation. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Seen that there are to different types of beauty to be found, says Tullius {…}, where the one consists in the loveliness, the other consists in the stateliness or importance; as such the loveliness is Feminin, the importance, on the other hand, appears to be Masculin. This importance is maintained by a full colour, like the youthful liveliness of a good healthy colour is maintained by the training of our bodies. (…) What the feminine beauty is concerned, Artists tend to pay most attention to the graceful loveliness of the appearance; it is not a beautiful woman, says Seneca {…}, whose thighs or arms are praiseworthy, but whose complete appearance diminishes and sedates the miraculousness of all the other parts.

CICERO, Marcus Tullius
SENECA

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Now we finally reach the Magnificence or stateliness, which can commonly be found in a carefully considered Invention, seen that it always provides the Invention with a remarkable distinction, when the Artist is found to have carefully observed the truth, occasion and discretion in it. Because just like the whole Art of Painting does not amount to much unless it is accompanied by a remarkable modesty, moving the spectators by a pleasant appearance of an excellent grace, as such she may not lean too much on a affected amusement of an overworked neatness, as the greatest delight of the whole work is blocked and diminished by such decoration, this tends to also make the Artists themselves loose the respect of her Art, when the spectators begin to suspect the criticism of the all too careful jewel, that it is but affectation, and not real magnificence, that one finds in the work, that is, if the Art-loving spectators understand, that the Artist has tried to fill his work just with the artificial appearance of stateliness and not with stateliness itself. It happens daily that many, lacking the knowledge and experience that is demanded for this curious meticulous Art, busily build castles in the sky, so that they do not appear to crawl on the ground like other common artisans.

In this part of the citation, Junius paraphrases his words from the 1637 Latin edition, which makes it difficult to find the exact translations of the terms that were used in the Dutch edition. I would like to thank Wieneke Jansen (Leiden University) for her precious assistance with regard to the Latin and English translation of this citation. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] We should furthermore remark that the Art-connoisseurs do not only learn to capably discern the original works from the imitations [NDR: literally: paintings after (an original)]; but that they simultaneously also learn to competently distinguish the old works from the new. In the old pieces one finds a certain inimitable authorithy or respectability of Art, says Quintilianus {…}, that tends to add a special pleasantness to Paintings.

QUINTILIANUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such the old Masters observed these five chief principles very closely in their Paintings. I. The Historical content, that is often called the Invention or also the argument. II. The uniformity, which one commonly calls the Proportion, symmetry, analogy and harmony. III. The colour or the colouring; and in this they tend to carefully distinguish the light and shadow, as well as the sheen and darkness. IV. The life; which exists in the Action and Passion, or (to speak more clearly) in the skilled depiction of the characteristics that one discerns in the unmovable things, as well as in the lively expression of the movements that one perceives in the movable things, when these do or suffer something considerable. V. The arrangement, that one commonly tends to call the Disposition or Ordinance.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] From that time onwards one could daily see the Art increase; such that a certain Action or power of movement to show in the face, in the gesture, in the whole appearance of the Paintings. There is no special loveliness to be found in an upright body, says Quintilianus {…}, the face should be turned towards us, the arms should hang downwards, the legs should be joined together, and the whole work should keep an unmoving stiffness from top to bottom. The Bending, and so to say, the movement give the imitated things a certain Action or activity. Thus the hands are not always made in one way, and the face has a thousand different expressions. Some bodies are positioned to walk and to show some other violence: Some one can see sitting, some laying: Some are completely naked, some dressed, some half naked and half dressed. What is more twisted and worked than Myron’s disk thrower, which was then called Discobolos. Regarding this those who did not like this piece of work very much, tended to be judged as having no knowledge at all of Art, seen that it was known to everyone, that the difficult rarity of this statue deserved the highest praise. Like we see that the movement is one of the most important point, that one has to observe in this Art; as such it is not hard, in my opinion, to find the beaten track towards it. We only have to cast our eyes on nature, and diligently follow in her footsteps.

MYRON, Discobolos

MYRON
QUINTILIANUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like the main power of Paintings lies in the capable imitation of the characteristics that one perceives in the unmoving things, as well as in the lively depiction of the movements that one detects in the moving things; as such we have to consider as well, that the harmony of the whole work is thought to exist most of all in the gesture and the movement of the figures, when they do something remarkable or suffer. As such the living movement also tends to be called after one or the other situation of the figures, sometimes Action and sometimes Passion: Because the Images that show the power of a serious occupation in their outward gesture, are said to have a good Action; the other on the other hand who demonstrate the internal movements of their mind by means of an outward dismay, are said to be full of Passion. This fills the works with a lively spirit, it is the true soul of the Art.

Junius explains that there are different types of movement (beroering) in an art work, which he also calls movement (roersel) and gesture (gebaar). On the one hand, he uses the term action (actie), which refers to the outer movement of the figures. On the other hand, there is the passion (passie), which reflects the inner movements. The correct depiction of the different movements should lead to a well-composed whole (welstand). The rest of paragraph IV.2 describes the different emotions, not necessarily in direct relation to art. The phrasing of this paragraph is different in the Latin and English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] What the Artificial proportional expression of the found material is concerned, it is called differently by different writers; but mainly it is described by the name Symmetry, Analogy or Harmony in Philostratus and many other writers; as such the young Philostratus has also capably connected these three terms. In my opinion the old wise Men, he says {…}, have written a lot about the Symmetrie of the Art of Painting, by proposing us some certain laws regarding the Analogy of the separate members, as if it were not enough that the Artists would express some movements of the body capably after their understanding, it was then necessary that the Harmony of their work would stay within the natural size, because Nature (namely when it shows us a rightful and well-composed movement) does not want to recognize at all that which is starting to stray from its own character and size. Just as we understand from these words that the Greek terms Symmetry, Analogy and Harmony more or less mean the same, as such it is likewise uncertain and unclear which Latin term is used for it. The word Symmetry, says Plinius Lib. XXXIV. nat.hist. cap. 8. Nevertheless the young Plinius appears to have expressed this word with the term Congruentia or AEqualitas, that is correspondence or uniformity. If the head or any other member, which is torn off a statue, is depicted, he says {…}, you would perhaps not easily deduct the correspondence or uniformity of the whole work, nevertheless you would be able to judge from it whether the part itself is good enough.

PHILOSTRATOS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
PLINIUS, Le Jeune

Junius extensively discusses the different terms that are used to describe the aspect of proportion in a painting. This paragraph serves as the introduction for further exploration of the different terms, although some of them are only mentioned in this citation. The terms that are mentioned are: symmetry (symmetrie), analogy (analogie), harmony (harmonie), Congruentia, Aequalitas, medevoeghlickheyd and uniformity (gelijkvormigheid). Junius mentions the Greek origins of the first three terms and suggests that Congruentia and Aequalitas might be their Latin equivalents, as suggested by Pliny jr. The two Dutch terms are Junius’ own invention. This citation is of interest, as it shows Junius’ search for and understanding of artistic terms. In the Latin edition, Junius uses the Greek term for harmony: 'αρμονια. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Besides this aforementioned Imitation of natural bodies by which the Artists are stimulated to express all sorts of visible things after life, we should here consider another type of Imitation, by which the Artists dares to also depict such things that are far removed from man's view. And although the principal power of this imitation exists in the fantasy, then we should still thank our eyes for the first beginnings of this imagination; as the internal representations that play in our thoughts can never be modeled there, unless we have first beheld the shape of things somewhere in coarse with our eyes, or at least have felt with one or another of our five senses.

Junius uses ‘afbeelden’ to indicate the ability of artists to depict that which cannot be seen directly, but which has to be imagined in one’s mind. The near-synonym ‘uitdrukken’, which he also uses in this extract, indicates the ability to work ‘after life’ rather than from the imagination.[MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Thus this very fruitful power of our mind is, after the judgment of Plato {…}, twofold: the first only tries to express such things that the eye beholds presently; the other also manages to depict those things whose example is only presented in the fantasy.

PLATON

Junius uses ‘afbeelden’ to indicate the ability of artists to depict that which cannot be seen directly, but which has to be imagined in one’s mind. ‘Uitdrukken’ (express) indicates the ability to work after that which is seen with one’s eyes at that moment, rather than from the imagination. He connects this to Plato’s theory of the duality of the mind. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Bring hither, bring hither, O pious Poets, he says {…}, all the labor of your learned nights: you Artists as well, reject the common twaddle of dazed fables, and let your ingenious hands rather paint these things; let the common market places as well as the Churches with the depiction of these histories be embellished; let them be brought to life in Color and be moved in Copper.

LATINUS PACATUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Now we finally reach the Magnificence or stateliness, which can commonly be found in a carefully considered Invention, seen that it always provides the Invention with a remarkable distinction, when the Artist is found to have carefully observed the truth, occasion and discretion in it. Because just like the whole Art of Painting does not amount to much unless it is accompanied by a remarkable modesty, moving the spectators by a pleasant appearance of an excellent grace, as such she may not lean too much on a affected amusement of an overworked neatness, as the greatest delight of the whole work is blocked and diminished by such decoration, this tends to also make the Artists themselves loose the respect of her Art, when the spectators begin to suspect the criticism of the all too careful jewel, that it is but affectation, and not real magnificence, that one finds in the work, that is, if the Art-loving spectators understand, that the Artist has tried to fill his work just with the artificial appearance of stateliness and not with stateliness itself. It happens daily that many, lacking the knowledge and experience that is demanded for this curious meticulous Art, busily build castles in the sky, so that they do not appear to crawl on the ground like other common artisans.

Junius describes the importance and characteristics of magnificence (magnificentie), also called stateliness (statigheid), in an art work. He explains that it should entail modesty (stemmigheid), grace (bevalligheid) and not too much unnecessary ornament (opghepronckte verlustinghe; optoyssel; affectatie) or extreme neatness. As such, these terms for ornament are used in a negative way. In this part of the citation, Junius paraphrases his words from the 1637 Latin edition, which makes it difficult to find the exact translations of the terms that were used in the Dutch edition. I would like to thank Wieneke Jansen (Leiden University) for her precious assistance with regard to the Latin and English translation of this citation. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] …it is necessity that those go even further, who observe these wonders of Nature not only to the extent of human ingenuity, but also wonderfully reproduce the similitude after life of the same wonders.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Apelles has also painted things that cannot be reproduced; such as for example thunderbolts, heat lightning, lightning, (…) So that Theophylactus Simocasus seems to have thought of this, when he says {…}, that the Painters strain themselves to express such things, that Nature itself cannot do.

APELLES
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
THEOPHYLAKTOS SIMOKATTES

From this extract, it is clear that Junius associates ‘afmaelen’ with painting directly after something which is before the artist’s eyes. Here, he remarks that ‘afmaelen’ is not possible in the case of temporary things like thunder and lightning, but that artists – in this case Apelles – have nonetheless painting such subjects. He then goes on to state that painters hereby manage to express something which Nature itself cannot. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] In Vitruvius the word Symmetria is almost everywhere called Commensus, that is: measurement, or proportion or uniformity.

VITRUVIUS

Junius mentions that Vitruvius used the term Commensus instead of Symmetria, he then clarifies this term with equivalent words in Dutch: measurement (afmeting), maetvoeghelickheyd (proportion, cfr. WESTSTEIJN 2016, p. 373 for this translation) and uniformity (gelijkmatigheid). Indeed, it is still difficult to translate these terms to English. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] What the term Harmoge is concerned, it appears to just mean an invisible Art-practice, by which the most able Artists move inappropiately and furtively from one colour to the next, without any possibility to perceive the real change and the real border of the same colours. For this reason we do not find it unseemly to produce an example or two from nature to futher understand this Harmoge or chromatic degradation. Because if we have ever seen the rather rare mixing of Sea and Sky in its reclining and distancing, it cannot be unknown to us, how we lose them both out of sight near the Horizon or the vanishing point; the manner in which they softly flow into eachother towards the fading chromatic degradation, uniting themselves so miraculously in a damp fog, that it is impossible to us to point out its true border, see Stat. Papinius (…). In the rainbow we can find an even clearer proof of such a degradation of colours. Because although one becomes aware of the great diversity of colours through this multicolour miracle-work of nature, nevertheless one cannot see that they bump harshly against eachother somewhere, while they appear to not only softly flow into eachother through a very fine painted diminuition of colours, but also grow away from each other; although they differ very much in the outer parts, yet they become one in touching; as they disappear so sweetly in their shared space, that one cannot see one or the other separately; and instead of one or the other one only finds the corruption of two colours, that are secretly melted into eachother by gradually fading, see Ovid (…).

OVIDIUS
STATIUS, Publius Papinius

The terms verschiet, verdrijving and versterving are difficult to translate to English. I have chosen the terms degradation (of colours), diminuition and corruption. The user is advised to carefully reconsider these suggested translations. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like we see that those who follow the first heat of their energetic mind without any consideration, tend to advance the work so much, that it becomes impossible for them to improve it well; as such we find it advisable in any way that the students, yes even the accomplished [artists, red.], would first only roughly sketch the entire design of their work, to then take the first sketch in their hands again and again, before they continue to lay out the entire work.

This section of the text is much more elaborate in the Dutch edition than in the Latin (1637) and English editions and the terms are not included there. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Yet the unbelievable power of this Symmetry reveals itself most in the Art of Drawing or in the first sketch of the found things. Various Art-loving Men tended to keep this well-proportioned design of a sufficiently conceived Invention for the main groundwork of these Arts; namely when the diligent Artists envision their first ideas in a few proportional lines, without the help of any entertaining colours, that one learns everything about the lively power of things itself in the simplicity of its contour and the mediocrity of its one-coloured interior.

This section in the Dutch edition is different from the English and Latin edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such we should pay more attention to that which Plinius tells us; namely that after the invention of the light and shadow, something else was added to the Art, which one calls the glow or the contrast [NDR: problematic translation of the term afsetsel], This glow is called Tonos, he says {…}, because it sits between the light and shadow and appears to originate from both. What the diminuition and the degradation of the colours is concerned, this is also called Harmoge. The term Tonus also appears to point to the execution of a mightier light; namely when some or another part of the Painting, which appears to have been heightened sufficiently, is heightened even more powerful, causing that that which appeared to stand out sufficiently, now only serves as a shadow, to make that which stood out before stand out even more. Yet we have talked about this in the previous part.

PLINIUS, L'Ancien

The suggested translation is problematic with regard to the translation of the terms 'afsetsel', 'verdrijving' and 'verschiet', which are translated here as contrast, diminuition and degradation (of colours). The user is advised to reconsider these translations carefully. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Those who have developed their eyes to this tireless ability of an incontradictable judgement through the daily practice of a steady observation, tend to demonstrate the most power of their knowledge of art by knowing to immediately distinguish the originals from the copies. The original works that the competent Masters have made after life itself, are understood here wit the term of original pieces; the copies on the other hand are nothing else than the drawings after it, or the offprints, or casts, or paintings after it that one has drawn or painted after the original piece. The frank Art-connoisseurs tend to perceive the complete power of a lively gracefulness in the original pieces; while they only become aware of the defective wretchedness of a flawed lifelessness in the fakes. There is always a graceful pleasure to be found in all the originals, says Dionisius Halicarnessensis {…}, the copied pieces on the other hand, as competently expressed as they may be, tend to show by one element or another that is too cultivated, to not be originating from nature. […]

DIONYSIOS HALIKARNASSEUS

The Dutch terms afteykeningh, uytdrucksel, afsetsels and naemaelsel, all referring to a copy after the original, are difficult to translate directly to English. I have chosen to use a descriptive translation, which should only serve the user as a suggestion. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Those who have developed their eyes to this tireless ability of an incontradictable judgement through the daily practice of a steady observation, tend to demonstrate the most power of their knowledge of art by knowing to immediately distinguish the originals from the copies. The original works that the competent Masters have made after life itself, are understood here wit the term of original pieces; the copies on the other hand are nothing else than the drawings after it, or the offprints, or casts, or paintings after it that one has drawn or painted after the original piece. The frank Art-connoisseurs tend to perceive the complete power of a lively gracefulness in the original pieces; while they only become aware of the defective wretchedness of a flawed lifelessness in the fakes. There is always a graceful pleasure to be found in all the originals, says Dionisius Halicarnessensis {…}, the copied pieces on the other hand, as competently expressed as they may be, tend to show by one element or another that is too cultivated, to not be originating from nature. […]

DIONYSIOS HALIKARNASSEUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Those who have developed their eyes to this tireless ability of an incontradictable judgement through the daily practice of a steady observation, tend to demonstrate the most power of their knowledge of art by knowing to immediately distinguish the originals from the copies. The original works that the competent Masters have made after life itself, are understood here wit the term of original pieces; the copies on the other hand are nothing else than the drawings after it, or the offprints, or casts, or paintings after it that one has drawn or painted after the original piece. The frank Art-connoisseurs tend to perceive the complete power of a lively gracefulness in the original pieces; while they only become aware of the defective wretchedness of a flawed lifelessness in the fakes. There is always a graceful pleasure to be found in all the originals, says Dionisius Halicarnessensis {…}, the copied pieces on the other hand, as competently expressed as they may be, tend to show by one element or another that is too cultivated, to not be originating from nature. […]

DIONYSIOS HALIKARNASSEUS

The Dutch terms afteykeningh, uytdrucksel, afsetsel, naemaecksel and naemaelsel, all referring to a copy after the original, are difficult to translate directly to English. I have chosen to use a descriptive translation, which should only serve the user as a suggestion. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such the old Masters observed these five chief principles very closely in their Paintings. I. The Historical content, that is often called the Invention or also the argument. II. The uniformity, which one commonly calls the Proportion, symmetry, analogy and harmony. III. The colour or the colouring; and in this they tend to carefully distinguish the light and shadow, as well as the sheen and darkness. IV. The life; which exists in the Action and Passion, or (to speak more clearly) in the skilled depiction of the characteristics that one discerns in the unmovable things, as well as in the lively expression of the movements that one perceives in the movable things, when these do or suffer something considerable. V. The arrangement, that one commonly tends to call the Disposition or Ordinance.

In the introduction to the third book, Junius introduces the five main principles (hoofdstukken) that the old masters followed in their work. The second of these principle is ‘gelijkmatigheid’ (uniformity), which can also be called by one of its synonyms: Proportion, Symmetry, Analogy and Harmony. In the second chapter of Book Three the differences between these synonyms are discussed at length in the following chapters. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] What the Artificial proportional expression of the found material is concerned, it is called differently by different writers; but mainly it is described by the name Symmetry, Analogy or Harmony in Philostratus and many other writers; as such the young Philostratus has also capably connected these three terms. In my opinion the old wise Men, he says {…}, have written a lot about the Symmetrie of the Art of Painting, by proposing us some certain laws regarding the Analogy of the separate members, as if it were not enough that the Artists would express some movements of the body capably after their understanding, it was then necessary that the Harmony of their work would stay within the natural size, because Nature (namely when it shows us a rightful and well-composed movement) does not want to recognize at all that which is starting to stray from its own character and size. Just as we understand from these words that the Greek terms Symmetry, Analogy and Harmony more or less mean the same, as such it is likewise uncertain and unclear which Latin term is used for it. The word Symmetry, says Plinius Lib. XXXIV. nat.hist. cap. 8. Nevertheless the young Plinius appears to have expressed this word with the term Congruentia or AEqualitas, that is correspondence or uniformity. If the head or any other member, which is torn off a statue, is depicted, he says {…}, you would perhaps not easily deduct the correspondence or uniformity of the whole work, nevertheless you would be able to judge from it whether the part itself is good enough.

PHILOSTRATOS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
PLINIUS, Le Jeune

Junius extensively discusses the different terms that are used to describe the aspect of proportion in a painting. This paragraph serves as the introduction for further exploration of the different terms, although some of them are only mentioned in this citation. The terms that are mentioned are: symmetry (symmetrie), analogy (analogie), harmony (harmonie), Congruentia, Aequalitas, medevoeghlickheyd and uniformity (gelijkvormigheid). Junius mentions the Greek origins of the first three terms and suggests that Congruentia and Aequalitas might be their Latin equivalents, as suggested by Pliny jr. The two Dutch terms are Junius’ own invention. This citation is of interest, as it shows Junius’ search for and understanding of artistic terms. In the Latin edition, Junius uses the Greek term for analogy: αναλογια. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] What the word Analogy is concerned, some have called the word analogy Proportion in Latin, says A. Gellius {…}, As such the learned Quintilianus does not appear to find this term wrong; those who have recently translated the term Analogy from the Greek to the Latin, he says {…}, call it a Proportion. (…) In order for us not to busy ourselves too long with a reasonable translation of these three words, as such we will leave it to this, only adding to it, that the Painters appear to have borrowed these terms Analogy and Harmony from the Proportion that is observed by the Math-artists [NDR: mathematicians] and the Sing-artists [NDR: singers]; since this Analogy or Proportion is nothing else but a certain law of numbers, after whose instruction the Artists set all their works.

GELLIUS, Aulus
QUINTILIANUS

In continuing the discussion about the terminology regarding the principle of proportion, Junius states that analogy (analogie) is often translated as proportion (proportie) by Latin authors. He goes on to explain that analogy, proportion and harmony (harmonie) are closely related to mathematics and music and that it boils down to a law of numbers. In the Latin edition (1637), Junius also cites the Greek term: αναλογια. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such the old Masters observed these five chief principles very closely in their Paintings. I. The Historical content, that is often called the Invention or also the argument. II. The uniformity, which one commonly calls the Proportion, symmetry, analogy and harmony. III. The colour or the colouring; and in this they tend to carefully distinguish the light and shadow, as well as the sheen and darkness. IV. The life; which exists in the Action and Passion, or (to speak more clearly) in the skilled depiction of the characteristics that one discerns in the unmovable things, as well as in the lively expression of the movements that one perceives in the movable things, when these do or suffer something considerable. V. The arrangement, that one commonly tends to call the Disposition or Ordinance.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] We should furthermore remark that the Art-connoisseurs do not only learn to capably discern the original works from the imitations [NDR: literally: paintings after (an original)]; but that they simultaneously also learn to competently distinguish the old works from the new. In the old pieces one finds a certain inimitable authorithy or respectability of Art, says Quintilianus {…}, that tends to add a special pleasantness to Paintings.

QUINTILIANUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] There is not one amongst the old Masters, or he has thinly brushed the red lead paints in his Paintings, just like one tends to enjoy the medicines sparingly. Now, on the other hand, entire walls are not only blotted coarsely and greatly with this paint, but they are also remarkably bold in the use of mountain-green, purple, blue azure, and other similar paints, which although they are brushed on without any art, they still attract the eyes of the viewers with their bright sheen, these same paints, as is demanded by the law, have to be provided by the commissioner (because they are costly) and not by the accepter of the work.

VITRUVIUS

Junius discusses a quote from Vitruvius regarding the use of different colors throughout history, he mentions the colors red-lead, mountain-green, purple and blue azure specifically. Moreover, the colors mentioned in the Latin edition are not the same as the ones in the Dutch text: chryosocolla, ostrum and armenium. The citation is translated rather differently – and erratically – in the English edition. According to Vitruvius, the old masters used these pigments sparingly, whereas contemporary painters use large quantities which they apply very generously. The technique of the artist in applying the paint apparently plays no role in its appreciation. It is also mentioned that the commissioner pays for these costly pigments.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Plutarchus likewise makes a clear difference between the aforementioned Grace and the unconstrained apparently loose boldness of which we have initiated to speak here; The poems of Antimachus, he says {…}, just like the paintings of Dionysius, as they have a great strong power of Art in them, as such they appear to be too mincing and affected. One can however discern in the Paintings of Nicomachus as well as in the poems of Homerus, that they appear to have been made competently and rather easily, next to the other virtues and graces that one can find in them. As such the gracefulness of paintings is made more graceful when one discern an easy competence in it, originating in the surging power of the Invention that comes forth from the chest of brave Artists, like from a rich source.

DIONISIUS
NICOMACHOS
PLUTARCHOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Of the lovely temptation of Paintings, and how we let ourselves knowingly be carried away by the deception of it, a thousand examples could be raised here; which we deem unnecessary; since it is well-known, that good paintings are but a 'phantom of the eye'.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] From that time onwards one could daily see the Art increase; such that a certain Action or power of movement to show in the face, in the gesture, in the whole appearance of the Paintings. There is no special loveliness to be found in an upright body, says Quintilianus {…}, the face should be turned towards us, the arms should hang downwards, the legs should be joined together, and the whole work should keep an unmoving stiffness from top to bottom. The Bending, and so to say, the movement give the imitated things a certain Action or activity. Thus the hands are not always made in one way, and the face has a thousand different expressions. Some bodies are positioned to walk and to show some other violence: Some one can see sitting, some laying: Some are completely naked, some dressed, some half naked and half dressed. What is more twisted and worked than Myron’s disk thrower, which was then called Discobolos. Regarding this those who did not like this piece of work very much, tended to be judged as having no knowledge at all of Art, seen that it was known to everyone, that the difficult rarity of this statue deserved the highest praise. Like we see that the movement is one of the most important point, that one has to observe in this Art; as such it is not hard, in my opinion, to find the beaten track towards it. We only have to cast our eyes on nature, and diligently follow in her footsteps.

MYRON, Discobolos

MYRON
QUINTILIANUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like the main power of Paintings lies in the capable imitation of the characteristics that one perceives in the unmoving things, as well as in the lively depiction of the movements that one detects in the moving things; as such we have to consider as well, that the harmony of the whole work is thought to exist most of all in the gesture and the movement of the figures, when they do something remarkable or suffer. As such the living movement also tends to be called after one or the other situation of the figures, sometimes Action and sometimes Passion: Because the Images that show the power of a serious occupation in their outward gesture, are said to have a good Action; the other on the other hand who demonstrate the internal movements of their mind by means of an outward dismay, are said to be full of Passion. This fills the works with a lively spirit, it is the true soul of the Art.

Junius explains that there are different types of movement (beroering) in an art work, which he also calls movement (roersel) and gesture (gebaar). On the one hand, he uses the term action (actie), which refers to the outer movement of the figures. On the other hand, there is the passion (passie), which reflects the inner movements. The correct depiction of the different movements should lead to a well-composed whole (welstand). The rest of paragraph IV.2 describes the different emotions, not necessarily in direct relation to art. The phrasing of this paragraph is different in the Latin and English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] In the diversity of the Historical matters we find a first, second, third meaning almost everywhere, coming from the manifold action which is shown in it, yet as such it is not enough that we attempt to involve the manifold circumstances of an abundant subject in an apparent order, unless this order depicts the specific sequence that can be found in the circumstances of the history itself after life; as such we should make an even greater effort to put all the separate parts of the occurring matter together with such an able and unfathomable connection, that they no longer appear to be separate parts, but a whole and perfect body.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] From that time onwards one could daily see the Art increase; such that a certain Action or power of movement to show in the face, in the gesture, in the whole appearance of the Paintings. There is no special loveliness to be found in an upright body, says Quintilianus {…}, the face should be turned towards us, the arms should hang downwards, the legs should be joined together, and the whole work should keep an unmoving stiffness from top to bottom. The Bending, and so to say, the movement give the imitated things a certain Action or activity. Thus the hands are not always made in one way, and the face has a thousand different expressions. Some bodies are positioned to walk and to show some other violence: Some one can see sitting, some laying: Some are completely naked, some dressed, some half naked and half dressed. What is more twisted and worked than Myron’s disk thrower, which was then called Discobolos. Regarding this those who did not like this piece of work very much, tended to be judged as having no knowledge at all of Art, seen that it was known to everyone, that the difficult rarity of this statue deserved the highest praise. Like we see that the movement is one of the most important point, that one has to observe in this Art; as such it is not hard, in my opinion, to find the beaten track towards it. We only have to cast our eyes on nature, and diligently follow in her footsteps.

MYRON, Discobolos

MYRON
QUINTILIANUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As the Painting, together with the Poem in a way delude our reason by a pleasant yet intentional deceit, it then even further inclines the movements of our mind hither and thether at its own desire by the force of this deception.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The highest perfection of the paintings lies foremost therein, that these five chief principles meet eachother so pleasantly in the work and coincide so well with eachother, that they extent a certain kind of agreeability or convenance (which are commonly called the Grace and the Charm [NDR: both would be translated as Grace in English] of the paintings): As such this Grace is nothing else in nature, than a sweet and rather friendly harmony of all sorts of perfections combined in one piece of work: It is the best collection of the very best things (…) Seen that the spirit of the Invention tends to sweetly seduce our mind, that neatnes of the Proportion tends to capably pull our eyes towards it, that the adequate use of colours tends to confuse our fantasy extraordinarily by a pleasant deceit, that the liveliness of the mouvement tends to enchant our soul powerfully, that the order of the composition tends to instruct our senses in a rather miraculous way; how than can the Painting not spread a remarkable power in our hearts, in which all these principles can be found together:

While moving towards the conclusion of the third Book, Junius explains that the perfection (volmaaktheid) of an art work lies in the agreement (overeenstemming) of the five chief principles (hoofdstuk), as described in the previous chapters. He uses different terms for this perfection: aangenaamheid (agreeability), propriety (welstand), grace (gratie), charm (bevalligheid). He goes on to list the most perfect state of the different principles: spirit (geestigheid) of invention, neatness (netheid) of proportion, an adequate use (bekwaamheid) of colours, liveliness (levendigheid) of the movements and order (ordentelijkheid) in the composition. In the English edition, this term is described as 'the aire of the picture'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Plutarchus likewise makes a clear difference between the aforementioned Grace and the unconstrained apparently loose boldness of which we have initiated to speak here; The poems of Antimachus, he says {…}, just like the paintings of Dionysius, as they have a great strong power of Art in them, as such they appear to be too mincing and affected. One can however discern in the Paintings of Nicomachus as well as in the poems of Homerus, that they appear to have been made competently and rather easily, next to the other virtues and graces that one can find in them. As such the gracefulness of paintings is made more graceful when one discern an easy competence in it, originating in the surging power of the Invention that comes forth from the chest of brave Artists, like from a rich source.

DIONISIUS
NICOMACHOS
PLUTARCHOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] …in regard to this, as this great Master had resolved to bequeath the inhabitants of Crotona an outstandingly beautiful female Image, he then did not find it wise to search for the complete perfection of the most graceful beauty in one body, but he has selected five of the most beautiful virgins, so that through earnest observation he would be able to find true beauty, which according to Lucianus {…} by necessity can only be one.

LUCIANUS DE SAMOSATE
ZEUXIS

Junius place art above nature, as one ‘beeldt’ (image) made by an artist can contain a collection of beautiful aspects from several natural things. It is not entirely clear whether the term should be translated as ‘image’ or as ‘sculpture’, the former would appear more appropriate, seen that Zeuxis was a painter. Indeed, the terms used in the Latin (forma) and English (choice patterne) edition are unambiguously pointing to ‘image’ as the best translation. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Let the Painting be an Image, he says {…}, of such a thing that is, or at least could be; namely of a man, a house, a ship and such things from which contour the Imitation can provide itself an example. As such the old then tend to embellish their rooms, their Galleries, their dining rooms with such Art, which is taken from certain natural things.

VITRUVIUS

Junius uses the word ‘schilderij’ (painting) for the physical object, whereas he uses ‘beeld’ (image) for the subject matter within the painting. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The principles of these arts that concern themselves with Imitation, do not demand endless effort, but by contrast offer themselves readily, content with very moderate and not too heavy instructions of adequate proportion.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The first principles of these Arts are also easily grasped by those, who sincerely put themselves to it: and when someone slowly advances in it, he may thank his own opposition: because we will find the first education short enough, if we only try not to consciously deceive ourselves and others that it is a sad long road: Besides that, an adequate way of education will also make all things much shorter. By contrast, the first and most blame is then on the Masters, who strangely enjoy detaining their apprentices by causing delay,…

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Also no one here has to think that the first principles of this Art originate in the Art, because it is a gift of nature one feels the ability in himself: this is also good for our case, that the first seed can be cultured and augmented by Art; because if it were deposited into us by Art, that is at once impossible.

This section is not present in the first Latin edition (1637). Junius relates that the artist receives ‘bekwaamheid’ (ability) from nature (and not from art itself). Furthermore, it is connected foremost to the first principles of art.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The highest perfection of the paintings lies foremost therein, that these five chief principles meet eachother so pleasantly in the work and coincide so well with eachother, that they extent a certain kind of agreeability or convenance (which are commonly called the Grace and the Charm [NDR: both would be translated as Grace in English] of the paintings): As such this Grace is nothing else in nature, than a sweet and rather friendly harmony of all sorts of perfections combined in one piece of work: It is the best collection of the very best things (…) Seen that the spirit of the Invention tends to sweetly seduce our mind, that neatnes of the Proportion tends to capably pull our eyes towards it, that the adequate use of colours tends to confuse our fantasy extraordinarily by a pleasant deceit, that the liveliness of the mouvement tends to enchant our soul powerfully, that the order of the composition tends to instruct our senses in a rather miraculous way; how than can the Painting not spread a remarkable power in our hearts, in which all these principles can be found together:

While moving towards the conclusion of the third Book, Junius explains that the perfection (volmaaktheid) of an art work lies in the agreement (overeenstemming) of the five chief principles (hoofdstuk), as described in the previous chapters. He uses different terms for this perfection: aangenaamheid (agreeability), propriety (welstand), grace (gratie), charm (bevalligheid). He goes on to list the most perfect state of the different principles: spirit (geestigheid) of invention, neatness (netheid) of proportion, an adequate use (bekwaamheid) of colours, liveliness (levendigheid) of the movements and order (ordentelijkheid) in the composition. In the English edition, this term is described as 'the aire of the picture'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such I also firmly believe, that one can discern little difference between the consideration and the judgement; it is the case that one finds in primarily in the fact that the judgement occupies itself with those things that have already been brought forth; the consideration on the other hand occupies itself mostly with those things, which are still hidden or are never found or at least are questionable: Also that the judgment usually is certain; the consideration on the other hand is a far-fetched reason, which, as it often occupies itself with making up and considering several things, it contains in itself not only the invention but also the practice of judgment itself.

Junius discusses the difference between two capacities of the artist: consideration (beraad) and judgement (oordeel). The former takes place before the act of creation has taken place, whereas the latter is of importance after creation, to adjust that which has been created. The consideration is closely related to the artistic invention (inventie). [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The main task of a good Painter then consists therein, that he capably mixes his colours, according to the guideline by Lucianus, that he applies them appropriately and shades them in an acceptable manner. Which is then impossible unless he prepares a good panel or an apt canvas. Plinius explains to us […] of what type of wood the old Artists made the boards or panels on which they painted. Theophrastus also […] tells us in particular which type of wood they previously chose for such a use. Just like it is clear that the Artists tended to carefully pick the most apt wood, as such we learn from Ioannes Grammaticus that it was not all the same to them which canvas they used for the composing of their work.

GRAMMATIKOS, Joannes
LUCIANUS DE SAMOSATE
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
THÉOPHRASTOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The darkness appears to be nothing else here, than the brownish darkness of a deeper shadow; just like the glow may be thought to be nothing else than the blinking brightness of a more clear light, Because if we cover a panel simultaneously with white and black, says Ioannes Grammaticus {…}, so the white will always appear to be closer and the black further away. Because of this, Painters, following this principle, manage themselves with blackish or darkbrown colours, when they attempt to depict the deepened hollowness of a cesspool, of a rain barrel, of a canal, of a bottomless pit, or something like that: When, to the contrary, they attempt to heighten some things, such as the breasts of a virgin, a stretched-out hand, the feet of a jumping or walking Horse, then they tend to add a pleasant shadow of black and brown paints, so that these parts can stand out with a lively power from the nearby depth.

PHILOPONUS, Joannes

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] There is not one amongst the old Masters, or he has thinly brushed the red lead paints in his Paintings, just like one tends to enjoy the medicines sparingly. Now, on the other hand, entire walls are not only blotted coarsely and greatly with this paint, but they are also remarkably bold in the use of mountain-green, purple, blue azure, and other similar paints, which although they are brushed on without any art, they still attract the eyes of the viewers with their bright sheen, these same paints, as is demanded by the law, have to be provided by the commissioner (because they are costly) and not by the accepter of the work.

VITRUVIUS

Junius discusses a quote from Vitruvius regarding the use of different colors throughout history, he mentions the colors red-lead, mountain-green, purple and blue azure specifically. Moreover, the colors mentioned in the Latin edition are not the same as the ones in the Dutch text: chryosocolla, ostrum and armenium. The citation is translated rather differently – and erratically – in the English edition. According to Vitruvius, the old masters used these pigments sparingly, whereas contemporary painters use large quantities which they apply very generously. The technique of the artist in applying the paint apparently plays no role in its appreciation. It is also mentioned that the commissioner pays for these costly pigments.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] It is then clear that amongst the number of so many and diverse Arts in which a great name and immortal fame is obtained, this Art, which depicts all that one sees covered under the wide firmament of Heaven, is not one of the least.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Similarly the Art of Painting compares very well with Poetry, as the one as well as the other sneaks into our hearts with a brave entertaining movement, where it moves and startles our defeated mind by the attraction of a pleasant astonishment in which we accept that which has been imitated for real.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Which then makes it evident that the Artist can only clearly and expressively work out those things which he traces by hand when he beholds them presently. Which most of all takes place in the passions or the inner movements of our mind; because although it exists coincidentally in the truth, says Quintilianus {…}, and coincidentally in the imitation; it is as such that the true stirrings burst out naturally, but they lack art, this has to somehow be shaped through learning. The imitated stirrings on the other hand, although they have Art, they then lack in nature; and therefore it is here the most significant that one is truly moved to not understand the representations differently, as if it were real things that we occupy ourselves with.

QUINTILIANUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] A complete and ably done Invention has to spring forth from a large and deeply rooted wisdom; no studies should be unknown to us; we have to know all about the whole antiquity together with the countless number of Poetic and Historical tales; yet it is most necessary that we thoroughly understand the manifold movements of the human mind as well as all the special characteristics of it, seen that the great and admired power of these Arts lays most in the lively expression of such commotion. So we understand how the Artists were once judged with a special insight as wise men; seen that one can hardly find one in all the other free Arts, who has to deal more with the help of a high and well-evoked wisdom.

This section is not included in the first Latin edition (1637). [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like the old Artists had a very striking manner of working, as such they had a special gift to imagine the true representation of all sorts of movements of our mind in the most lively way; yes we may also interpret freely, that they would never have filled their works again with such able expressions of the different passions, if they had not have thought it painfully worthful to wisely trace all those natural commotions by which our mind delights and the common appearance of our being is changed varyingly. Zeuxis has made a painting of Penelope, in a way that he appears to have artfully depicted the modesty of her being. Plin. XXXV.9. Timomachus has depicted the raging Aiax, and how he behaved in this outrageous madness Philostr. Lib. II. de vita Apollonii.Cap. 10. Silanion has made the resentful Artist Apollodorus; and as this Apollodorus was a grumpy guy, Silanion did not only cast the Artist himself, but also his stubborn touchiness Plin. XXXIV.8. Protogenes has painted Philiscus, being taken by deep reflections Plin. XXXV.10. Praxiteles has made Phyrne, as if one saw her luxuriant heart bathe in a great see of happiness and lust, Plin. XXXIV.8. Parrhasius made a young man who is walking around in his armour looking for a fight, Plin. ibidem. Philostratus {…} describes a painting to us of a Bacchus who can only be recognized by the heartaches that torture him. These examples illustrate clearly enough, how big a skill the old Masters have had in expressing all sorts of commotions and movements;

PARRHASIUS (Parrhasios)
PHILOSTRATOS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
PRAXITELES
PROTOGENES
SILANION
TIMOMACHOS
ZEUXIS

Only the citations are mentioned in the Latin edition, but there is no commentary, like in the Dutch and English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like the main power of Paintings lies in the capable imitation of the characteristics that one perceives in the unmoving things, as well as in the lively depiction of the movements that one detects in the moving things; as such we have to consider as well, that the harmony of the whole work is thought to exist most of all in the gesture and the movement of the figures, when they do something remarkable or suffer. As such the living movement also tends to be called after one or the other situation of the figures, sometimes Action and sometimes Passion: Because the Images that show the power of a serious occupation in their outward gesture, are said to have a good Action; the other on the other hand who demonstrate the internal movements of their mind by means of an outward dismay, are said to be full of Passion. This fills the works with a lively spirit, it is the true soul of the Art.

Junius explains that there are different types of movement (beroering) in an art work, which he also calls movement (roersel) and gesture (gebaar). On the one hand, he uses the term action (actie), which refers to the outer movement of the figures. On the other hand, there is the passion (passie), which reflects the inner movements. The correct depiction of the different movements should lead to a well-composed whole (welstand). The rest of paragraph IV.2 describes the different emotions, not necessarily in direct relation to art. The phrasing of this paragraph is different in the Latin and English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The adequate expression of the strongest passions and the most moving stirrings tend to only spring forth abundantly from an excited and moved heart, as from a lively rich source, and spread itself so powerful over the whole work, that because of the sweet violence of a pleasing force the spectators briefly feel in their hearts the same movements that the working Artist has felt.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The main task of a good Painter then consists therein, that he capably mixes his colours, according to the guideline by Lucianus, that he applies them appropriately and shades them in an acceptable manner. Which is then impossible unless he prepares a good panel or an apt canvas. Plinius explains to us […] of what type of wood the old Artists made the boards or panels on which they painted. Theophrastus also […] tells us in particular which type of wood they previously chose for such a use. Just like it is clear that the Artists tended to carefully pick the most apt wood, as such we learn from Ioannes Grammaticus that it was not all the same to them which canvas they used for the composing of their work.

GRAMMATIKOS, Joannes
LUCIANUS DE SAMOSATE
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
THÉOPHRASTOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Zeuxis, Polygnotas and Euphranor have attempted by means of a remarkable labour to shade their pieces in a reasonable manner and to breathe a lively spirit in them; as such they attempted to achieve the highest praise over the other Masters with their depths and highlights. Philostr. (…)

EUPHRANOR
PHILOSTRATOS
POLYGNOTOS
ZEUXIS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] In the end, the manifold careful study of Art tends to stimulate so much in our mind, that through the duration of this practice we become able to judge all sorts of Artful works with a rare ease and with an undeceiving ability, because of this Dionyisus Longinus {…} has with great reason called this convenient ability in judging the very last fruit of the manifold experience.

LONGINUS, Dionysius

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Plutarchus likewise makes a clear difference between the aforementioned Grace and the unconstrained apparently loose boldness of which we have initiated to speak here; The poems of Antimachus, he says {…}, just like the paintings of Dionysius, as they have a great strong power of Art in them, as such they appear to be too mincing and affected. One can however discern in the Paintings of Nicomachus as well as in the poems of Homerus, that they appear to have been made competently and rather easily, next to the other virtues and graces that one can find in them. As such the gracefulness of paintings is made more graceful when one discern an easy competence in it, originating in the surging power of the Invention that comes forth from the chest of brave Artists, like from a rich source.

DIONISIUS
NICOMACHOS
PLUTARCHOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] …it then cannot be harmful that one adds to the gracefulness of Apelles the lucky audacity of Zeuxis, the tireless diligence of Protogenes, the keen profoundness of Timanthes, as well as the stately magnificence of Nicophanes.

APELLES
NICOPHANES
PROTOGENES
TIMANTHES
ZEUXIS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] And so it happens that our mind, darkened by the illness of judgement, cannot discern what coincides with the authority and true reason of gracefulness.

VITRUVIUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] […] that the Paintings, according to the statement of Philostratus {…}, receive a truly lovely harmony from so many different figures and movements; that in the end those paintings are held in higher esteem, who attempt to augment the aforementioned grace by means of an appropriate composition of so many different figures: The other Artists on the other hand, who are not at all or very little trained in the subject of Ordinance, as they know how to deal with a simple Painting [NDR: with few figures] rather well, as such they are very much at a loss when one orders them the composing and ordering of some complex pieces that are rich in figures; they tend to loose the ability that they have in the little [NDR: format] in the large [NDR: format];

PHILOSTRATOS

This section is not included in the Latin edition of 1637. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The highest perfection of the paintings lies foremost therein, that these five chief principles meet eachother so pleasantly in the work and coincide so well with eachother, that they extent a certain kind of agreeability or convenance (which are commonly called the Grace and the Charm [NDR: both would be translated as Grace in English] of the paintings): As such this Grace is nothing else in nature, than a sweet and rather friendly harmony of all sorts of perfections combined in one piece of work: It is the best collection of the very best things (…) Seen that the spirit of the Invention tends to sweetly seduce our mind, that neatnes of the Proportion tends to capably pull our eyes towards it, that the adequate use of colours tends to confuse our fantasy extraordinarily by a pleasant deceit, that the liveliness of the mouvement tends to enchant our soul powerfully, that the order of the composition tends to instruct our senses in a rather miraculous way; how than can the Painting not spread a remarkable power in our hearts, in which all these principles can be found together:

While moving towards the conclusion of the third Book, Junius explains that the perfection (volmaaktheid) of an art work lies in the agreement (overeenstemming) of the five chief principles (hoofdstuk), as described in the previous chapters. He uses different terms for this perfection: aangenaamheid (agreeability), propriety (welstand), grace (gratie), charm (bevalligheid). He goes on to list the most perfect state of the different principles: spirit (geestigheid) of invention, neatness (netheid) of proportion, an adequate use (bekwaamheid) of colours, liveliness (levendigheid) of the movements and order (ordentelijkheid) in the composition. In the English edition, this term is described as 'the aire of the picture'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] From the previous it becomes clear, what a heavy load those take on their shoulders, who attempt to spread their fame upon the next generations by means of some or other masterpiece; seen that the perfection of the work is barely helped by the aforementioned grace, unless some successful effect of a brave and fearless diligence is immediately apparent in the whole work.

In the Latin edition (1637), this term is described as 'exactis artis opus', in the English edition the description Junius uses is: 'absolute piece of workmanship'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Plutarchus likewise makes a clear difference between the aforementioned Grace and the unconstrained apparently loose boldness of which we have initiated to speak here; The poems of Antimachus, he says {…}, just like the paintings of Dionysius, as they have a great strong power of Art in them, as such they appear to be too mincing and affected. One can however discern in the Paintings of Nicomachus as well as in the poems of Homerus, that they appear to have been made competently and rather easily, next to the other virtues and graces that one can find in them. As such the gracefulness of paintings is made more graceful when one discern an easy competence in it, originating in the surging power of the Invention that comes forth from the chest of brave Artists, like from a rich source.

DIONISIUS
NICOMACHOS
PLUTARCHOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] …as such nothing is left, than to briefly discuss by what means one can obtain this Grace. It is true that we do not dare to connect it to one specific Art-rule, while Tullius and Quintilianus judge that this is impossible, nonetheless we think, that, although one may not take this Grace for perfection of the bare Art, that it is nevertheless a fruit of Art, in as far as the perfect art occupies itself with that which best resembles our nature. As such the Art and nature together shape this gracefulness, therefore it is also necessary that we carefully elaborate on the perfection of Art, to which we are most drawn by nature. Everyone who works in these Arts in a reasonable manner, attempts to always occupy himself. Although it is therefore probably that a good Artist will acquit himself well, or at least acceptably, in all that he takes in his hand, nevertheless it is certain that he will touch upon the true power of this gracefulness most easily, when he does not place the excellence of his Art in things that he detests, or that are praisefully desired by him, but rather in such things that have a secret association with the special inclination of his nature.

CICERO, Marcus Tullius
QUINTILIANUS

Whereas Junius cites Cicero and Quintilianus iN the Latin edition, he only paraphrases the citations in the Dutch edition. Therefore, the translated terms are approximate. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Dionysius Halicarnassensis {…} introduces us to the first reason, when he [writes?] that the old scenes with a rather miraculous simplicity of colours received their main praise from the graceful neatness of the drawing; like the new, on the other hand, insisted on a – I don’t know what kind of – painterly jewel, being badly and rather carelessly drawn, also see Themistius de Amicitia, where he makes the same point in the same manner. The second reason is based on the first; because like the first reason elevates the old pieces above the new, because the simple and unforced gracefulness that one tends to find in it, as such the second reason appears to praise the old works the most because of a rather excellent stateliness or Majesty that they maintain from the simplicity of the old Art. Porphyrius {…}, says that the new Images of the Gods are being watched with surprise, because of the dignity of the work; but that the old, on the other hand, are feared, because the simplicity of their work coincide the most with the glorious Majesty of the Gods.

DIONYSIOS HALIKARNASSEUS
PORPHYRIOS
THEMISTIOS

Junius continues to explain the distinction between old (oud) and new (nieuw) art, expressing a strong preference for the former. He attributes a praiseworthy simplicity (eenvoud) of colours and a neatness (netheid) of design to the old style, which leads to a gracefulness (bevalligheid) as well as a certain stateliness (hoogwaardigheid, majesteit, waardigheid). The new works, on the other hand, use too many colours and are drawn badly (slecht) and careless (zorgeloos). [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] While it is then apparent, that most of the perfection of our works consists mainly in the shaping and ordering of the Invention; that the work appears to be finished more than half, when one has designed the first draft of the whole work with a good and orderly fashion; as such we can easily decide that we should readily observe all means necessary for it and that we should never give up on working, unless all the separate parts of our first idea appear in their right place through the dedication of a deep and intimate visualization.

This section does not occur in the Latin edtion of 1637 and is formulated quite differently in the English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Seen that nothing moves us more powerful than the beauty of things themselves in the striking works of great Masters; as the successful boldness of Art, this is how it also often happens that the living similitude of ugly or hideous things can be found just as entertaining as the similitude of the most beautiful bodies.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Similarly the Art of Painting compares very well with Poetry, as the one as well as the other sneaks into our hearts with a brave entertaining movement, where it moves and startles our defeated mind by the attraction of a pleasant astonishment in which we accept that which has been imitated for real.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] It appears that the highly famous virtues of the old Masters consisted mostly in that they imitated the quick movements of their warmed spirit audaciously; just like their trained long-practiced senses could not remark something, which their experienced hands would not know how to express capably. It’s no wonder, then, that these Arts in former times increased tremendously, when the brave spirits of great Masters went through their work with a bold hand;

This comment on the citation from Pliny does not exist in the Latin edition. The English edition is also more concisive here. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] A complete and ably done Invention has to spring forth from a large and deeply rooted wisdom; no studies should be unknown to us; we have to know all about the whole antiquity together with the countless number of Poetic and Historical tales; yet it is most necessary that we thoroughly understand the manifold movements of the human mind as well as all the special characteristics of it, seen that the great and admired power of these Arts lays most in the lively expression of such commotion. So we understand how the Artists were once judged with a special insight as wise men; seen that one can hardly find one in all the other free Arts, who has to deal more with the help of a high and well-evoked wisdom.

This section is not included in the first Latin edition (1637). [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] It is certainly so and we believe that a fine and able Artist should above all aim for an experience of natural things: Not that we intend to lock him up in a vault somewhere, to break his head on different Geometrical tests; even less that he would go through the experience of so many contrasting opinions of the natural Philosophers by himself, in order to perfectly understand the true nature of all sorts of passion and movements: This is not the opinion: Because we think it is enough that he finds out through a daily observation how the manifold situations and commotions of our mind change and startle the gesture of our face. Every commotion of our mind, says Cicero {…}, receives a certain feature from nature, which one may interpret as the special and particular feature of this commotion

CICERO, Marcus Tullius

Junius elaborates on the amount of knowledge an artist has to acquire on subjects like geometry and philosophy in order to understand passions (hartstocht) and emotions (beweging / beroering). He concludes that a certain experience (ervarenheid) is necessary, rather than an in-depth study. This experience can be acquired by means of a close observation (opmerking) of facial expressions (gelaat) and emotions. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Whenever it happens that he finds himself in a group in which some people are clearly startled, one would immediately believe from his attentive seriousness that he has sought out such a situation, to read from the eyes of the startled peopled the manifold appearance of wrath, love, fear, hope, blame, happiness, trust and such movements. Although the Art-loving great Masters made the most work and study of this, nonetheless they sometimes also tend to free some time to attempt the Art of Virtue, the natural Philosophy, several Histories, Poetical embellishements, as well as the Mathematical sciences: Since although it is clear that the ethics, natural Philosophers, History-writers, Poetes and mathematicians are unable to make any Painter [sic]; nonetheless the knowledge of these Arts brings forth so much, that the Artists who manage quite well in these sciences are thought to be better and more perfect Painters.

This excerpt does not occur in the Latin edition of 1637. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like the old Artists had a very striking manner of working, as such they had a special gift to imagine the true representation of all sorts of movements of our mind in the most lively way; yes we may also interpret freely, that they would never have filled their works again with such able expressions of the different passions, if they had not have thought it painfully worthful to wisely trace all those natural commotions by which our mind delights and the common appearance of our being is changed varyingly. Zeuxis has made a painting of Penelope, in a way that he appears to have artfully depicted the modesty of her being. Plin. XXXV.9. Timomachus has depicted the raging Aiax, and how he behaved in this outrageous madness Philostr. Lib. II. de vita Apollonii.Cap. 10. Silanion has made the resentful Artist Apollodorus; and as this Apollodorus was a grumpy guy, Silanion did not only cast the Artist himself, but also his stubborn touchiness Plin. XXXIV.8. Protogenes has painted Philiscus, being taken by deep reflections Plin. XXXV.10. Praxiteles has made Phyrne, as if one saw her luxuriant heart bathe in a great see of happiness and lust, Plin. XXXIV.8. Parrhasius made a young man who is walking around in his armour looking for a fight, Plin. ibidem. Philostratus {…} describes a painting to us of a Bacchus who can only be recognized by the heartaches that torture him. These examples illustrate clearly enough, how big a skill the old Masters have had in expressing all sorts of commotions and movements;

PARRHASIUS (Parrhasios)
PHILOSTRATOS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
PRAXITELES
PROTOGENES
SILANION
TIMOMACHOS
ZEUXIS

Only the citations are mentioned in the Latin edition, but there is no commentary, like in the Dutch and English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Philostratus has expressed the true nature as well as the true power of the Art of Drawing much clearer. It may not be denied that the lines, he says {…}, that exist without any splendor of colours but only in light and shadow, deserve the name of Painting; as we see not only the similitude of the depicted persons in it, but also their movements itself, whether that they are averted out of a hesitant shame or are driven towards something by a frank diligence and although these lines that are composed in the most simple way do not express the mixing of blood or the youthfulness of the hair and the beard in any way, nevertheless they modestly illustrate the perfect shape of a black or white man to us.

PHILOSTRATOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like we see that those who follow the first heat of their energetic mind without any consideration, tend to advance the work so much, that it becomes impossible for them to improve it well; as such we find it advisable in any way that the students, yes even the accomplished [artists, red.], would first only roughly sketch the entire design of their work, to then take the first sketch in their hands again and again, before they continue to lay out the entire work.

This section of the text is much more elaborate in the Dutch edition than in the Latin (1637) and English editions and the terms are not included there. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Yet the unbelievable power of this Symmetry reveals itself most in the Art of Drawing or in the first sketch of the found things. Various Art-loving Men tended to keep this well-proportioned design of a sufficiently conceived Invention for the main groundwork of these Arts; namely when the diligent Artists envision their first ideas in a few proportional lines, without the help of any entertaining colours, that one learns everything about the lively power of things itself in the simplicity of its contour and the mediocrity of its one-coloured interior.

This section in the Dutch edition is different from the English and Latin edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The largest assistance to our Ordinance lies therein, that we thoroughly understand the proposed matter, that we insistently consider that which the Invention proposes to us, accustoming our thoughts gradually to it through the steadiness of this practice, that it would imagine the true circumstances of things itself through the attention of a remarkable imagination; because our mind almost cannot grasp the historical sequence of the occurring matter, or there will immediately appear an apt and rather certain manner of Ordinance. Yet here we must, in order to make a good work, pay attention, that we attempt to immediately come to the origine of the History itself; in order that we may – after we have drank in the full record of the whole situation – quickly imagine the whole design of the matter: Because if we only realize and understand the half of the situation or in a confused way, it will never happen, something or else will always be lacking, and our Disposition will necessarily be lame and imperfect. The first thing that we have to observe in this difficult task of Ordinance, is that we fully catch the whole sequence of an ornate matter in our thoughts: It then follows that we watch the separate figures of the same matter so intently through our imagination, that it will appear to proficiently walk towards its own place through the rapidity of our working mind.

This section does not occur in the Latin edition of 1637. In the English edition, this paragraph is more concise and formulated in a different manner. The part after 'Het eerste dan 't welck ons...' is not included in the English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] While it is then apparent, that most of the perfection of our works consists mainly in the shaping and ordering of the Invention; that the work appears to be finished more than half, when one has designed the first draft of the whole work with a good and orderly fashion; as such we can easily decide that we should readily observe all means necessary for it and that we should never give up on working, unless all the separate parts of our first idea appear in their right place through the dedication of a deep and intimate visualization.

This section does not occur in the Latin edtion of 1637 and is formulated quite differently in the English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] […] that the Paintings, according to the statement of Philostratus {…}, receive a truly lovely harmony from so many different figures and movements; that in the end those paintings are held in higher esteem, who attempt to augment the aforementioned grace by means of an appropriate composition of so many different figures: The other Artists on the other hand, who are not at all or very little trained in the subject of Ordinance, as they know how to deal with a simple Painting [NDR: with few figures] rather well, as such they are very much at a loss when one orders them the composing and ordering of some complex pieces that are rich in figures; they tend to loose the ability that they have in the little [NDR: format] in the large [NDR: format];

PHILOSTRATOS

This section is not included in the Latin edition of 1637. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Democritus argued that the colours on by themselves are a rather futile thing, but that the mixing of them tends to excite our fantasy very much, when one finds in the competent and measured application of the colours a good composition, lovely figures and an appropriate grouping of these same figures, see Stobaeus (…). Therefore it also happens often that several figures in a scene, nothwithstanding the skillful propriety of their colours, cannot please our eyes the least; we believe to discover a horrible deformity in it, not so much because some or other failure that we recognize in the figures themselves, but rather because of the loose lack of order of the composition. This art of composing or grouping of many and different figures that meet eachother in one piece is commonly called the Disposition or Ordinance; as such it only appears to occur in paintings that consist of many and different Figures. It is however true that one also needs to observe a certain order in the pieces that only contain one Figure; and the Artist, who portrays a distinguished man in stately councilor’s clothes standing on his head, is rightfully considered to have mistreated his Art insufferably; nonetheless this objectionable disorder deserves the name of a bad order rather than of a bad Ordinance.

STOBAEUS, Joannes

The different terms that Junius uses to describe composition are: disposition (dispositie), ordinance (ordonnantie), order (geschiktheid), composition (stelling, bijeenvoeging), schickingh-konst (art of composing) and combination (t’saemenvoeghinghe). In the following paragraphs he distinguishes between some of these terms, whereas others are used interchangeably. I would like to thank Wieneke Jansen (Leiden University) for her precious advice on the Latin edition of this citation. [MO][MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Likewise, to our opinion, those who believe that the dry poverty of a reduced matter [NDR: a simple subject matter] is not only helped by the nicely-coloured doll-like ostentation of different superficial additions, with which they smear the background [NDR: the area surrounding the main subject matter] of their pieces everywhere, commit a rather heinous mistake; but also with the addition of many farfetched rags and jags, with which they attempt to fill the inside [NDR: the central scene] of their failing argument;

Junius speaks very negatively about the use of additions or ornaments (bywerck) in an art work. He says that the only function of such unnecessary additions is to cover up the bad quality of the work and the subject matter. This section is not included in the Latin edition of 1637. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Now follows that we also discuss the outer lines a bit. Because like the Artist pay close attention that his colours, when necessary, would nicely fade into eachother; as such he should simultaneously pay attention to the outer lines; as the highest perfection of the Art is also thought to exist mainly in this, that the circumference or contour of the figures are drawn with such a nice and unrestrained sweetness, that the spectators believe to see that which is indiscernable in it; when the outer lines that encompass and comprise the image, are drawn so very purely that a big part of the scene appears to have been dissipated without any sharp outer edges. It makes that the figures appear to be not too flat but roundish; as its edges, with very thin and fine brushstrokes, gradually rounding, disappear from our view. The most capable Artists have confessed honestly, says Plinius {…}, that Parrhasius did the best job in making good contours. This is the highest perfection that a good Artist can achieve. And although it is no small matter at all to paint the bodies themselves with their interiors in an acceptable manner, nonetheless many have achieved exceptional praise in it; but making the outer bodies well, as well as capturing the size of the painting capably within its lines, is not a common thing, and is thought to only be the work of a fortunate hand. Because the outer contour has to encompass itself so clearly and finish so cleverly in a nice rounding, that does not only suggest what lies behind it, but that simultaneously appears to show that which lies underneath. Like the old Masters gave the highest praise regarding the outer strokes generously to this Parrhasius; as such he was nonetheless judged to be very uneven with the interior [NDR: of the figures].

PARRHASIUS (Parrhasios)
PLINIUS, L'Ancien

Junius addresses the necessity to soften the contour (uiterste lijn, omvang, omtrek) of the different shapes in a painting. If the artist manages to round off (omronden) the contours well, the figures will appear to be round (rondachtig) instead of flat and without any harsh edges (uytkantigheyt, approximate translation). To achieve this effect, one needs to dissipate (verdrijven) the colours as well as a delicate brushstroke (verfstreek). By referring to Parrhasius, Junius explains that it is more difficult to form the contours well in comparison the interior (binnenwerk) of the figures. I would like to thank Wieneke Jansen (Leiden University) for her assistance with regard to this citation. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Lysippus has expressed a certain bizarreness in all his works, yes he has seen it in the smallest things. (…)

LYSIPPOS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien

From this brief extract, it becomes clear that Junius, basing himself on Plinius, associates the hellenistic sculptor Lysippos with the characteristic of ‘bizarheid’ (bizarreness). He does not explain the reason for this association or what the term means to him. It might be related to the idea of a certain specificity or characteristic style. The phrase about Lysippos is quite different in the English edition: ‘Lysippos is most of all to be commended for fine and queint workmanship ; seeing hee observed in the least things a certain kind of subtiltie.’ [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The light is then needed for Paintings, seen that the right colour of the shadow only originates in the vicinity of the light. Tertullianus {…}, when he wanted to prove that Hermogenes was a very slack botchy Painter, added nothing else than that he tended to provide his shadows their colours without any light. They did not know in the beginning, once the Art had been elevated to a very marvelous excellence by the successful labour of the old Masters, to speak of anything but the one-colour Paintings, which they then called Monochromata; Art has finially distinguished itself, says Plinius {…}, and has invented the light and the shadow; the constrasting diversity of colours having been incited by a mutual change in tide.

HERMOGENES
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
TERTULLIANUS, Quintus Septimius Florens

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The darkness appears to be nothing else here, than the brownish darkness of a deeper shadow; just like the glow may be thought to be nothing else than the blinking brightness of a more clear light, Because if we cover a panel simultaneously with white and black, says Ioannes Grammaticus {…}, so the white will always appear to be closer and the black further away. Because of this, Painters, following this principle, manage themselves with blackish or darkbrown colours, when they attempt to depict the deepened hollowness of a cesspool, of a rain barrel, of a canal, of a bottomless pit, or something like that: When, to the contrary, they attempt to heighten some things, such as the breasts of a virgin, a stretched-out hand, the feet of a jumping or walking Horse, then they tend to add a pleasant shadow of black and brown paints, so that these parts can stand out with a lively power from the nearby depth.

PHILOPONUS, Joannes

The term 'caeruleus', which Junius uses in the Latin edition of 1637, refers to dark blue, rather than dark brown. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] This is an amazing function of our eyes; Our eye takes a remarkable pleasure in the most twinkling colours, says Maximus Tyrius {…}, nevertheless this entertainment will only give us little joy, unless one attempts to help the pleasing glow of such bright paint a little by [NDR: placing] a brown nearby.

MAXIMOS TYRIOS

In the English edition, this term is described as 'brown colour'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The darkness appears to be nothing else here, than the brownish darkness of a deeper shadow; just like the glow may be thought to be nothing else than the blinking brightness of a more clear light, Because if we cover a panel simultaneously with white and black, says Ioannes Grammaticus {…}, so the white will always appear to be closer and the black further away. Because of this, Painters, following this principle, manage themselves with blackish or darkbrown colours, when they attempt to depict the deepened hollowness of a cesspool, of a rain barrel, of a canal, of a bottomless pit, or something like that: When, to the contrary, they attempt to heighten some things, such as the breasts of a virgin, a stretched-out hand, the feet of a jumping or walking Horse, then they tend to add a pleasant shadow of black and brown paints, so that these parts can stand out with a lively power from the nearby depth.

PHILOPONUS, Joannes

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Afterwards, like all the other Artists heighten some specific parts of their Images with light colours and deepen them by means of a adjacent brownness to make them stand out better, as such he [NDR: Pausias] has made the whole Ox black, only expressing the nature of its shadow from the power of the marvelous depth, and by a remarkable Art of foreshortening simultaneously achieving that one would take his flat Painting for an elevated semi-round statue, and that some things stood damaged and pitted in it, that were nevertheless whole and smooth, Plin. (…)

PAUSIAS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien

In the English edition, this term is described as 'some mixture of black'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Galenus {…} mentions that Polycletus has not only written down the rules to make a perfect work, but that he moreover thought it good to make a statue after the instructions of the aforementioned rules. Policletus made a piece of work, says Plinius {…} which is called a Canon or directive amongst Artists, because they can extract the right shape of Art from it, as if from a certain law:

GALENUS, Claudius
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
POLYKLEITOS

Junius describes, citing Galen and Pliny, how the sculptor Polycletus did not only write down the rules (‘regel’) to create a perfect work of art, but that he also produced a statue that followed these same rules. This statue could henceforth serve as an example for artists. Junius uses the term ‘canon’ to describe the function of this statue, adding that ‘richtsnoer’ is an equivalent term. Junius repeats this example in Book Three, page 253. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] In Vitruvius the word Symmetria is almost everywhere called Commensus, that is: measurement, or proportion or uniformity.

VITRUVIUS

Junius mentions that Vitruvius used the term Commensus instead of Symmetria, he then clarifies this term with equivalent words in Dutch: measurement (afmeting), maetvoeghelickheyd (proportion, cfr. WESTSTEIJN 2016, p. 373 for this translation) and uniformity (gelijkmatigheid). Indeed, it is still difficult to translate these terms to English. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] What the Artificial proportional expression of the found material is concerned, it is called differently by different writers; but mainly it is described by the name Symmetry, Analogy or Harmony in Philostratus and many other writers; as such the young Philostratus has also capably connected these three terms. In my opinion the old wise Men, he says {…}, have written a lot about the Symmetrie of the Art of Painting, by proposing us some certain laws regarding the Analogy of the separate members, as if it were not enough that the Artists would express some movements of the body capably after their understanding, it was then necessary that the Harmony of their work would stay within the natural size, because Nature (namely when it shows us a rightful and well-composed movement) does not want to recognize at all that which is starting to stray from its own character and size. Just as we understand from these words that the Greek terms Symmetry, Analogy and Harmony more or less mean the same, as such it is likewise uncertain and unclear which Latin term is used for it. The word Symmetry, says Plinius Lib. XXXIV. nat.hist. cap. 8. Nevertheless the young Plinius appears to have expressed this word with the term Congruentia or AEqualitas, that is correspondence or uniformity. If the head or any other member, which is torn off a statue, is depicted, he says {…}, you would perhaps not easily deduct the correspondence or uniformity of the whole work, nevertheless you would be able to judge from it whether the part itself is good enough.

PHILOSTRATOS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
PLINIUS, Le Jeune

Junius extensively discusses the different terms that are used to describe the aspect of proportion in a painting. This paragraph serves as the introduction for further exploration of the different terms, although some of them are only mentioned in this citation. The terms that are mentioned are: symmetry (symmetrie), analogy (analogie), harmony (harmonie), Congruentia, Aequalitas, medevoeghlickheyd and uniformity (gelijkvormigheid). Junius mentions the Greek origins of the first three terms and suggests that Congruentia and Aequalitas might be their Latin equivalents, as suggested by Pliny jr. The two Dutch terms are Junius’ own invention. This citation is of interest, as it shows Junius’ search for and understanding of artistic terms. In the Latin edition, Junius uses the Greek term for harmony: 'αρμονια. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] When the Painters are needed to portray some beautiful and lovely faces, in which one then finds some sort of flaw, says Plutarchus {…}, we then tend to request for this, that they do not neglect that deformed hardness immediately, but neither express it too readily, since it is certain that the Image that is being made that way, would appear either uneven [NDR: not resembling the sitter] or ugly.

PLUTARCHOS

The verb conterfeyten (to portray) is used to describe the specific act of portraying someone’s face. Junius cites Plutarchus, who stated that one should not neglect flaws in the face, nor should these elements be emphasized. If the flaws are too clearly present, the image would be perceived as not resembling the sitter (ongelijk) or ugly (lelijk). [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] That which resembles something else, he says {…}, necessarily has to have shortcomings and have more gracefulness than the things whose similitude it appears to bear. Because like the things that we take as our example, have nature itself and the true power in them; as such all sorts of imitations, on the other hand, only tend to be portrayed and follow the situation of other things

QUINTILIANUS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Apelles tends to make the portraits of one and the other so very resembling, that the ‘watchers of faces’, who one calls Metopocopos or Physiognomers, could predict from both his paintings and from life itself when the depicted person would die. Plin. XXXV.10. This also made Philophomus develop the reasoning, why good Painters could not very well miss the true resemblance of imitated things.

APELLES
PHILOPONUS, Joannes
PLINIUS, L'Ancien

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The Greek Painters have called this mixing of colours a destruction or dissolution, as Polyphyrius (…) explains the same to us. Likewise Plutarchus says in his book about the fame of the Athenians, that the Painter Apollodorus, who was the very first to find the corruption or dissolution of paints as well as the manner of shading, was an Athenian citizen. Likewise he explains us in another place {…} the true reason that moved the old Artists to call this mixing of paints a dissolution. For it is known that the Art of Painting achieves by means of the well-moderated mixing and the diversity of paints that one can modestly find the living similitude of the depicted persons in its Images.

APOLLODORUS
École grecque
PLUTARCHOS
PORPHYRIOS

Junius lists the different terms that the Greek authors and painters have used to describe the mixing (vermenging) of different paints or colours. Porphyrius called it destruction (verderving) and dissolution (ontwording), whereas Plutarch used dissolution and corruption (corruptie). It is difficult to translate these terms to contemporary English and it appears that Junius struggled to translate these terms to Dutch as well. Plutarch wrote that it was Apollodorus to invent the mixing as well as the shadowing (schaduwen - noun). The reference to Lucian is only included in the English and Latin edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] …it then cannot be harmful that one adds to the gracefulness of Apelles the lucky audacity of Zeuxis, the tireless diligence of Protogenes, the keen profoundness of Timanthes, as well as the stately magnificence of Nicophanes.

APELLES
NICOPHANES
PROTOGENES
TIMANTHES
ZEUXIS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] …the same has to remark with us from the old writers that the main virtue of a neat and well-composed Inventie mainly consists of four things: In the truth. In the Opportunity, or in the observation of an appropriate situation of time and place, in the discretion, or the modesty of a disciplinary and honorable policy. In the Magnificence, or in the stateliness. For as far as the truth is concerned; The Art of painting always pays a lot of attention to the truth, says Philostratus Iconum Lib. I. in Narcisso. And like the History-writer manages to deal so well with deceit, says Ammianus Marcellinus {…}, that it appears to consciously pass by any truthful histories, when he poetizes some false histories; as such the art of painting tends to pay attention to these to things when expressing the truth, on the one hand she does not want it to happen that she would express that which one cannot find in nature, and on the other hand she cannot bring herself that she would neglect that which one finds in nature.

AMMIANUS MARCELLINUS
PHILOSTRATOS

In the Latin edition (1637), most of the terms are given only in Greek. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such the old Masters observed these five chief principles very closely in their Paintings. I. The Historical content, that is often called the Invention or also the argument. II. The uniformity, which one commonly calls the Proportion, symmetry, analogy and harmony. III. The colour or the colouring; and in this they tend to carefully distinguish the light and shadow, as well as the sheen and darkness. IV. The life; which exists in the Action and Passion, or (to speak more clearly) in the skilled depiction of the characteristics that one discerns in the unmovable things, as well as in the lively expression of the movements that one perceives in the movable things, when these do or suffer something considerable. V. The arrangement, that one commonly tends to call the Disposition or Ordinance.

The fifth principle is that of the composition of the painting. Junius offers the terms disposition and ordinance as synonyms. In the fifth chapter of the Third Book, he elaborates on the differences between these synonyms. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The first four chief principles are seen in both the single Painting of one figure and in the multiple Painting that consists of many figures; The Disposition on the other hand tends to take place the most in the multiple Paintings; seen that many and different figures that are thoughtlessly piled up messily in a piece, appear to be nothing but a dark dead confusion of several poorly equivalent things that have light nor life in them, until they have been placed competently and properly in their right place by means of the Art of arrangement.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Democritus argued that the colours on by themselves are a rather futile thing, but that the mixing of them tends to excite our fantasy very much, when one finds in the competent and measured application of the colours a good composition, lovely figures and an appropriate grouping of these same figures, see Stobaeus (…). Therefore it also happens often that several figures in a scene, nothwithstanding the skillful propriety of their colours, cannot please our eyes the least; we believe to discover a horrible deformity in it, not so much because some or other failure that we recognize in the figures themselves, but rather because of the loose lack of order of the composition. This art of composing or grouping of many and different figures that meet eachother in one piece is commonly called the Disposition or Ordinance; as such it only appears to occur in paintings that consist of many and different Figures. It is however true that one also needs to observe a certain order in the pieces that only contain one Figure; and the Artist, who portrays a distinguished man in stately councilor’s clothes standing on his head, is rightfully considered to have mistreated his Art insufferably; nonetheless this objectionable disorder deserves the name of a bad order rather than of a bad Ordinance.

STOBAEUS, Joannes

The different terms that Junius uses to describe composition are: disposition (dispositie), ordinance (ordonnantie), order (geschiktheid), composition (stelling, bijeenvoeging), schickingh-konst (art of composing) and combination (t’saemenvoeghinghe). In the following paragraphs he distinguishes between some of these terms, whereas others are used interchangeably. I would like to thank Wieneke Jansen (Leiden University) for her precious assistance on this citation.[MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Yet here we should first make the distinction between the Disposition that tends to spring forth from the Invention, and the other Disposition that is the work of a careful Proportion. This first Disposition or Ordinance, which has its origin in the Invention itself, is nothing else but a lively depiction of the natural order that one tends to recognize in the sequence of the occurring Invention: As such one should not expect here, that this Ordinance would bring forth something new; because it has nothing else to do, than that it attempts to competently bring together that which has already been found, that it expresses the simplicity of the natural history after life by means of an even and singular fluency. As this is a great point, as such it demands an extraordinary carefulness: Because if it had been possible for the old Masters to come up with a certain Ordinance that could be applied to all sorts of occurring situations, many would have been very excellent in grouping their figures,…

Junius distinguishes between two types of composition, although he calls them both disposition (dispositie) and ordinance (ordonnantie) interchangeably. The first type is connected to the artistic invention (inventie) and basically expresses that which is already seen in nature. It requires that the artist works with care (zorgvuldigheid) after life (naar het leven). The other type, on which Junius does not elaborate here, is related to proportion (proportie), thus suggesting the necessity of the artist’s knowledge of proportion. This paragraph is very different in the Latin edition, the explanation of the distinction between the different terms does not occur in the Latin edition and only partially in the English edition. The part after 'Oversulcks behoeft men...' is not included in the English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The largest assistance to our Ordinance lies therein, that we thoroughly understand the proposed matter, that we insistently consider that which the Invention proposes to us, accustoming our thoughts gradually to it through the steadiness of this practice, that it would imagine the true circumstances of things itself through the attention of a remarkable imagination; because our mind almost cannot grasp the historical sequence of the occurring matter, or there will immediately appear an apt and rather certain manner of Ordinance. Yet here we must, in order to make a good work, pay attention, that we attempt to immediately come to the origine of the History itself; in order that we may – after we have drank in the full record of the whole situation – quickly imagine the whole design of the matter: Because if we only realize and understand the half of the situation or in a confused way, it will never happen, something or else will always be lacking, and our Disposition will necessarily be lame and imperfect. The first thing that we have to observe in this difficult task of Ordinance, is that we fully catch the whole sequence of an ornate matter in our thoughts: It then follows that we watch the separate figures of the same matter so intently through our imagination, that it will appear to proficiently walk towards its own place through the rapidity of our working mind.

This section does not occur in the Latin edition of 1637. In the English edition, this paragraph is more concise and formulated in a different manner. The part after 'Het eerste dan 't welck ons...' is not included in the English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Until now we have discussed the Ordinance, which springs forth from the Invention; it now follows that we elaborate a bit on this Disposition, which is the work of a careful Proportion. To say the truth, this is also why this Disposition differs very little from the Proportion: Because like it aims for nothing else but that it observes and maintains the right difference between figures in an acceptable manner; as such it is called a Symmetry by Plinius with regard to the great resemblance that it has with the Proportion: Apelles, he says {…}, tended to observe the Symmetry of Asclepiodorus with great astonishment; By saying this, he has also expressed that Apelles did not dare to compare himself with the aforementioned Asclepiodorus, In the measurements, that is, in observing the space that one should maintain in different figures, as the same author says in the same chapter. What this Disposition is concerned, one cannot connect it to any certain fixed rules; our eye has the biggest role in it:

APELLES
ASCLEPIODOROS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien

Junius returns to the distinction between two types of composition (ordonnantie, dispositie) that he introduced on page 300-301. This time, he distinguishes clearly between the two and focuses on disposition (dispositie), which he explains as being closely connected to proportion (proportie). Because of this connection, Pliny called this type of composition symmetry (symmetrie), according to Junius. There are no rules for the disposition of a painting, its quality depends on the able eye (oog) of the artist. This entire section is not included in the Latin edition of 1637. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The main task of a good Painter then consists therein, that he capably mixes his colours, according to the guideline by Lucianus, that he applies them appropriately and shades them in an acceptable manner. Which is then impossible unless he prepares a good panel or an apt canvas. Plinius explains to us […] of what type of wood the old Artists made the boards or panels on which they painted. Theophrastus also […] tells us in particular which type of wood they previously chose for such a use. Just like it is clear that the Artists tended to carefully pick the most apt wood, as such we learn from Ioannes Grammaticus that it was not all the same to them which canvas they used for the composing of their work.

GRAMMATIKOS, Joannes
LUCIANUS DE SAMOSATE
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
THÉOPHRASTOS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The darkness appears to be nothing else here, than the brownish darkness of a deeper shadow; just like the glow may be thought to be nothing else than the blinking brightness of a more clear light, Because if we cover a panel simultaneously with white and black, says Ioannes Grammaticus {…}, so the white will always appear to be closer and the black further away. Because of this, Painters, following this principle, manage themselves with blackish or darkbrown colours, when they attempt to depict the deepened hollowness of a cesspool, of a rain barrel, of a canal, of a bottomless pit, or something like that: When, to the contrary, they attempt to heighten some things, such as the breasts of a virgin, a stretched-out hand, the feet of a jumping or walking Horse, then they tend to add a pleasant shadow of black and brown paints, so that these parts can stand out with a lively power from the nearby depth.

PHILOPONUS, Joannes

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The conceited fame of those who try to express the simplicity of the oldest paintings by a rather hard and barren manner are an example here; because these only turn to Imitation of that which they see first, without considering which kind of extraordinary power and great Treasures of Art that hide underneath this simplicity.(…)

Anciens (les)
QUINTILIANUS

From this extract, it is apparent that Junius associates a certain hard and dry manner with the earliest paintings. He praises these works for their simplicity (‘eenvoud’), which one should try to understand. As such, he acknowledges the negative association one can have with the ‘hard’ manner, but he then states that there is more quality in it than meets the eye. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] It serves as an answer, that our feeling would not only be weakened by it, although it is known to us that some Masters have become acceptable Painters without the assistance of the other Arts and sciences; seen that we are not discussing the common ‘mass producers’ here, but only the real Artists; who, in our opinion, ought to be learned smart numbers; that is, men of such an outstanding mind and diligence, that it appears that Nature and Art have been combined for its perfection.

Junius defines what an artist (‘kunstenaar’), distinguishing between those who produce art works by the dozen (‘dozijnwerker’) and true artists. The difference lies in their level of knowledge (‘verstand’) and diligence (‘naarstigheid’), although he acknowledges that some masters (‘meester’) have managed to become reasonably good without this. Only the combination of nature and art will lead to perfection in art. Junius states his intention to only talk about these true artists in his text. In the English edition, the term 'dozijnwerker' is translated as ordinary workman'. This excerpt does not occur in the Latin edition of 1637. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Which then makes it evident that the Artist can only clearly and expressively work out those things which he traces by hand when he beholds them presently. Which most of all takes place in the passions or the inner movements of our mind;

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] It is only necessary for the Artists to pay attention that they do not show themselves too much in this part, discerning somewhat, together with Dionysius Longynus {…}, between the imagination that makes the Poets; and the other that puts the Painters to work. The Poetic fantasy has no other aim than to stir a senselessness of astonishment: The Artists by contrast only aim at perspicuity. The Poets also try to make it such, says the same Author {…}, that her poems would appear to be fabulous and different from the truth; by contrast the most splendid [NDR: element] which has to be noticed in the fantasy of Painters, consists of this, that her representations are powerful and consistent with the truth. Seeing that we are then completely convinced, from that which has been said up until now, that the fantasy offers striking representations, as such nobody can doubt that both place high value on this mild 'Image-nurse', with the result that it surely goes through daily exercise, without ever staggering or letting go of anything they once comprehended. […]From that which has been said before we thus we understand the reason why Dionysius Longinus {…} declares that the principal aim of fantasy exists in the perspicuitys or the clarity: as well that the Art, helped by the assistance of fantasy, appears to easily obtain of man that which she exacts of him.

LONGINUS, Dionysius

In the Latin edition (1637), Junius only uses the Greek term, εκπληξις. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like a knowledgeable and ingenious Artist tends to find out capably what deserves to be painted, as such he tends to also weigh his own strengths carefully, namely whether he is capable to produce that which he draws by hand. Take a matter, says Horace {…}, that coincides with your powers; also let your shoulders slowly experience what they are able to carry or not. He who does not mistake in his choice, it will never again lack him in perspicuitys and clarity of a bright level.

HORATIUS

The quote from Horace does not occur in the English edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Although we have abundantly shown in the previous sections, that the paintings are helped significantly by the competent combining of figures; as such the clarity, which is sometimes also called the perspicuitys, appears to be one of the main fruits of the Ordinance. Because like a good and careful Artist is used to get the whole idea of his Disposition from the power of the fantasy, by imagining the whole circumstance of the matter to himself as if present; as such he also always tends imprint a clear and lively impression of this imagined presence so powerful in his mind, that the observant spectators, because of the clarity of this depiction, are incited to seemingly feel the same imagination in their hearts, which the Artist has felt earlier in the composing and combining of the matter, see the last section of the fourth Chapter of our first Book, where we have refered briefly to the principle of this point. The perspicuitys demands that one does not depict the depicted things incorrectly, but [NDR: instead] by following the order in which the things themselves happened, says Aristides (…). The perspicuitys of combined and artfully interwoven things, says Lucianus {…}, has to be clear everywhere in the whole work, because the perfection of the work mainly consists in this.

ARISTIDES
LUCIANUS DE SAMOSATE

Junius explicitly mentions clarity (duidelijkheid) and perspicuity (uitdrukkelijkheid) as the result of a good composition or the right way of ordering the figures and subject matter in a painting. He explains that a good artist has imprinted the circumstances or presence (tegenwoordigheid) of the subject matter in his mind and will then instill this idea in the public. The Latin edition of 1637 only includes the citation from Lucian, the rest of the section is not present there. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As such the old Masters observed these five chief principles very closely in their Paintings. I. The Historical content, that is often called the Invention or also the argument. II. The uniformity, which one commonly calls the Proportion, symmetry, analogy and harmony. III. The colour or the colouring; and in this they tend to carefully distinguish the light and shadow, as well as the sheen and darkness. IV. The life; which exists in the Action and Passion, or (to speak more clearly) in the skilled depiction of the characteristics that one discerns in the unmovable things, as well as in the lively expression of the movements that one perceives in the movable things, when these do or suffer something considerable. V. The arrangement, that one commonly tends to call the Disposition or Ordinance.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The Art of Painting mainly exists in the colours, says Philostratus {…}; although they do not leave it to this; but like she shows her remarkable power in the one-colour Paintings, as such she nonetheless appears to be a very different Art in the multi-coloured pieces; as it shows us the shadows; it shows the difference, which one tends to find in the face of a raging, dejected, happy man; it makes an effort to imitate the power of the twinkling eyes, which is impossible for the Cast-artists [NDR: Sculptors in bronze].

PHILOSTRATOS

Junius discusses colour (kleur) as one of the main elements of painting (schilderkunst, schilderij). He distinguishes between monochrome paintings (eenverwigh schilderij) and polychrome paintings (veelverwigh schilderij). Unlike sculptors, painters are able to depict the shadow and different facial expressions. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The light is then needed for Paintings, seen that the right colour of the shadow only originates in the vicinity of the light. Tertullianus {…}, when he wanted to prove that Hermogenes was a very slack botchy Painter, added nothing else than that he tended to provide his shadows their colours without any light. They did not know in the beginning, once the Art had been elevated to a very marvelous excellence by the successful labour of the old Masters, to speak of anything but the one-colour Paintings, which they then called Monochromata; Art has finially distinguished itself, says Plinius {…}, and has invented the light and the shadow; the constrasting diversity of colours having been incited by a mutual change in tide.

PLINIUS, L'Ancien

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The conceited fame of those who try to express the simplicity of the oldest paintings by a rather hard and barren manner are an example here; because these only turn to Imitation of that which they see first, without considering which kind of extraordinary power and great Treasures of Art that hide underneath this simplicity.(…)

Anciens (les)
QUINTILIANUS

From this extract, it is apparent that Junius associates a certain hard and dry manner with the earliest paintings. He praises these works for their simplicity (‘eenvoud’), which one should try to understand. As such, he acknowledges the negative association one can have with the ‘hard’ manner, but he then states that there is more quality in it than meets the eye. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Yet while the oldest and best Artists did not place the main power of their work as much in the affected jewel of beautiful and expensive paints as in a bad plain manner of working which was common at that time, consequently this truly praiseworthy envy tends to happily busy itself with the simplicity of Art, that the Art-coveting Zealots – having truly tasted the sweet pleasure of art (which came forth from such unrestrained imitation), are immediately kindled to more diligence, not only out of consideration of the manifold application of these Arts, but also out of consideration of the major honor that Artists tend to enjoy everywhere. The experience of this honor was the tasty bait, because of which their diligence was sharpened to long eagerly after the Art in such a way, that they did no longer contend themselves with the daily Art-practice of other Masters, always searching to start something new because of a confident boldness.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The straightforward and bad simplicity of these Arts has caused its progress as well, amongst other things. Because just like we find that those came closest to perfection, who did not so much place the pleasant loveliness of their works in the vain delusional ‘paint-ostentation’ but rather in the power of the unadulterated Drawing and in the natural use of few and rather common colors; as such the sincere benevolent Students, who mean well with the Art and did not mean to bring shame to their former Masters, committing themselves firmly to this very praiseworthy simplicity, placing the primary aim of their Emulation in truly meeting with this characteristic of the old Masters.

This section of the tekst is much shorter in the Latin and English editions, where it only serves as an introduction to the citation from Isocrates. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like we therefore believe that the pieces of the old Masters were abundantly filled with all sorts of praiseworthy virtue; as such we steadily believe, that the praiseworthiness of their works mainly consisted of the fame of the rare proportional simplicity that appears to compete with nature itself in the old statues and paintings.

Anciens (les)

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Yet the unbelievable power of this Symmetry reveals itself most in the Art of Drawing or in the first sketch of the found things. Various Art-loving Men tended to keep this well-proportioned design of a sufficiently conceived Invention for the main groundwork of these Arts; namely when the diligent Artists envision their first ideas in a few proportional lines, without the help of any entertaining colours, that one learns everything about the lively power of things itself in the simplicity of its contour and the mediocrity of its one-coloured interior.

This section in the Dutch edition is different from the English and Latin edition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Dionysius Halicarnassensis {…} introduces us to the first reason, when he [writes?] that the old scenes with a rather miraculous simplicity of colours received their main praise from the graceful neatness of the drawing; like the new, on the other hand, insisted on a – I don’t know what kind of – painterly jewel, being badly and rather carelessly drawn, also see Themistius de Amicitia, where he makes the same point in the same manner. The second reason is based on the first; because like the first reason elevates the old pieces above the new, because the simple and unforced gracefulness that one tends to find in it, as such the second reason appears to praise the old works the most because of a rather excellent stateliness or Majesty that they maintain from the simplicity of the old Art. Porphyrius {…}, says that the new Images of the Gods are being watched with surprise, because of the dignity of the work; but that the old, on the other hand, are feared, because the simplicity of their work coincide the most with the glorious Majesty of the Gods.

DIONYSIOS HALIKARNASSEUS
PORPHYRIOS
THEMISTIOS

Junius continues to explain the distinction between old (oud) and new (nieuw) art, expressing a strong preference for the former. He attributes a praiseworthy simplicity (eenvoud) of colours and a neatness (netheid) of design to the old style, which leads to a gracefulness (bevalligheid) as well as a certain stateliness (hoogwaardigheid, majesteit, waardigheid). The new works, on the other hand, use too many colours and are drawn badly (slecht) and careless (zorgeloos). [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Yet while the oldest and best Artists did not place the main power of their work as much in the affected jewel of beautiful and expensive paints as in a bad plain manner of working which was common at that time, consequently this truly praiseworthy envy tends to happily busy itself with the simplicity of Art, that the Art-coveting Zealots – having truly tasted the sweet pleasure of art (which came forth from such unrestrained imitation), are immediately kindled to more diligence, not only out of consideration of the manifold application of these Arts, but also out of consideration of the major honor that Artists tend to enjoy everywhere. The experience of this honor was the tasty bait, because of which their diligence was sharpened to long eagerly after the Art in such a way, that they did no longer contend themselves with the daily Art-practice of other Masters, always searching to start something new because of a confident boldness.

In the introduction to the second book, Junius discusses the competition amongst the earliest painters. He explains how a desire for honor (‘eer’) stimulated the audacity (‘stoutmoedigheid’) of artists in trying to surpass each other. As such, ‘eer’ is used here in the sense of fame, the result of successful artistic competition. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Although the old Artists were without a doubt driven forcefully by the heat of their desire to imitate and by the unbearable irresistible incentives of envy towards serious practice of these Arts, still we should not think that these Arts have only advanced through the mutual Emulation of Artists, but we insist that the great name of many eloquent men have simultaneously incited the alert minds of Artists to do something which might deserve such an honor.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] As the Athenians thought to have great reason to honour and serve their patron god Minerva above all the other Gods and Godesses, as such they thought it well to erect a beautiful statue for her on an elevated base; they commissioned two of the very best Artists, Alcamenes and Phidias¸to do this; and they meanwhile let it be known that the statue that was to be judged the best in everyone’s judgement, would be paid for with a nice sum of money, so the Artists eagerly went to work, driven by the hope for great profit and greater honour that appeared would follow from it. Alcamenes was completely inexperienced in the Mathematical Arts, and thought that he had acquitted himself farily well, when his statue appeared beautiful to those who were standing close. Phidias on the other hand had decided, according to the knowledge that he had from the Geometrical and the Optical sciences, that the whole appearance of the statue would change following the situation of the envisioned height, (…) as such saw the tides change within a matter of hours; because as the sweetness that one could perceive up close in the lovely statue of Alcamenes, disappeared because of the height and changed into a certain hardness, as such the crooked deformity of Phidias’ statue was softened miraculously by the forshorthening of the heightened location, and the difference in craftsmanship between the two artists was so remarkably large, that the one received the deserved praise, the other, on the other hand, was brought to shame with his work, see […]

ALCAMENES
PHIDIAS
TZETZES, Joannes

In recounting the story of the competition between Alcamenes and Phidias for the commission of a statue of Minerva, Junius introduces the term profit (winst) to describe the motivation of both artist to win the competition, besides the great honour (eer) that would be bestowed upon them. In the Dutch edition, JUnius is much more explicit than in the English and Latin edition in his analysis of why Phidias’ sculpture was more successful in the end. He explains and identifies the foreshortening as the decisive factor. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Usually, a candid audacity of the Art tends to follow the benefit of the honor. It is unbelievable, says Plinius {…} how quickly the Art has increased, first through a fortunate result, and after that by a certain audacity. Where, by the fortunate result, we should understand nothing else but the notable respectability that these Arts had as long as Kings and Republicans put a lot of effort in them. After that, says Plinius furthermore, the Art progressed quickly through a certain audacity, explaining to us with these words that the aforementioned fortunate result brought the Artists so much further by feeling a sweet tingling of honor that they did not hesitate to try their hand at some new and unprecedented works, the marvelous Colossi of the old Masters bear witness of this; and Plinius, in the aforementioned place, names some Colossal works of the old Artists as evidence of their bold audacity. Zeuxis was most of all famous for his audacity; he capably stepped through the door that Apollodorus had opened, says Plinius again in the same place, bringing the brush, which now deemed very important, to further honor and distinction. For the audacity of this remarkable Artist, see Lucianus in his little book called Zeuxis.

APOLLODORUS
LUCIANUS DE SAMOSATE
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
ZEUXIS

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Poetry and Painting are also equal to each other, in that they occupy themselves mostly with imitation. We see daily how not only the Poets but the Painters as well because of a mutual envy or emulation portray the shape of Gods with a bold hand, just as they use their labor to express together the human activity.

In this citation, Junius connects emulation to ‘naer-yver’ (envy), but makes a difference. Emulation is used in the practical sense of ‘emulating’ colleagues and is seen as an aspect of the work of painters. Junius refers to the aemulation between Painters (and Poets) amongst themselves. Junius remarks on the similarity between painters and poets : both compete amongst eachother while depicting the Gods, so he sees no difference between painting and poetry here. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The almighty God, being the only rich vein of all things good, is Devoutly placed here in first place; whose endless mercy steadily causes in the hearts of Parents to take good care of their Children, lest their dearest offspring are delivered timely to the hands of a good and loyal Master, may they not only drink in the first principles but also the deepest secrets of Art from childhood on. If it then happens that the Pupils, having finished their period of training, throw away the good instruction of the Master behind his back and follow their own mind to the disadvantage of the art, then the fear of strict laws made against the corruptors of the arts is apt to strongly bound this licentiousness: however, if out of honesty they never intended to deviate from their first instruction, then they are valiantly strengthened in this firm course through a certain envy or emulation, which would not allow the mind to enjoy any rest until they would not only overtake their Master; but also surpass the Masters of their Masters.

In the introduction of the second book, Junius focuses on the education of an artist. After a period of guided instruction by a master, an artist will continue to develop himself individually. During this period, some artists diverge from the basic principles that they were taught by there master. A strong force behind this independent artistic development is ‘na- ijver’ or ‘aemulatie’. Junius describes this force as the drive to be better than all other artists, from the present and past. As such, ‘na-ijver’ or ‘aemulatie’ is both a positive and a negative phenomenon, as it motivates artists to develop themselves albeit sometimes in the ‘wrong’ direction. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like the fear of severe laws stirred so much in the conceited beginners, that they at least kept themselves within the limits, as such the Emulation (as one commonly calls the envy or desire to imitate) is far more powerful in the studious Pupils, when they would not just stay within the kind reasonability of that which they had received from their loyal teachers, but when they would moreover try to surpass the very best works of their masters and other artists because of a restless pride. The desire to imitate is more powerful than the punishment and fear that springs from the laws, says Tacitus (…).

TACITUS, Publius Cornelius

Junius discusses the advantage of competition amongst artists. He coins the term ‘aemulatie’ and its equivalents ‘na-ijver’ and ‘naevolghenslust’ to describe the need and habit of artists to try to surpass the (best) works of other artists, including their masters. In particular, he suggests that emulation may be the source of greater progress than following the strict rules of the trade. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Themistius goes even further, It is innate to man, he says {…}, to complete with the utmost capacity, that which has to be executed with a certain kind of emulation; likewise, to the contrary it coincides with his nature to execute carelessly those things, which ensue without any emulation, it makes us slow and negligent, when we have to do something without a competitor: To the contrary, our mind is provoked to rise higher, when it attempts to surpass the other. While it is obvious that the brightest minds are usually driven to great things through the untimely incentives of emulation, as such it follows that it is a clear sign of a heavy and unwilling mind, when someone is not moved by the great crowd of those who with an extraordinary seriousness aim at the perfection of some Arts to do the same as well.

THEMISTIOS

Junius cites Themistius, who discussed the role of human nature in the behavior of artists. On the one hand, man has an innate drive to surpass others, called ‘aemulatie’ (emulation). On the other hand, if there are no competitors, man becomes negligent and slow. As such, ‘aemulatie’ is described as an innate quality of artists. The English edition (1638) does not include the citation from Themistius. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The emulation cherishes the minds, he says {…}, and while our desire to imitate is activated either because of secretive annoyance, or because of a justified amazement, as such that which we chase after with the greatest diligence tends to obtain its highest perfection early on. But then it is very hard on us to keep up with this perfection, seen that a thing tends to recoil to the usual flow of nature, if it cannot move forward anymore.

PATERCULUS, Velleius

Junius discusses the origin of ‘aemulatie’ (emulation). He uses ‘(nae)volgh(ens)lust’ as equivalent for ‘aemulatie’. Emulation can either have a negative origin, which he describes as secretive annoyance or envy, or a positive one, described as ‘verwondering’ (amazement). It is furthermore of interest that Junius mentions the consequences of emulation: reaching perfection (‘volmaaktheid’), which might be difficult to keep up. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Although the old Artists were without a doubt driven forcefully by the heat of their desire to imitate and by the unbearable irresistible incentives of envy towards serious practice of these Arts, still we should not think that these Arts have only advanced through the mutual Emulation of Artists, but we insist that the great name of many eloquent men have simultaneously incited the alert minds of Artists to do something which might deserve such an honor.

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Those who had expressed the simplicity of the old works by the sufficient seriousness of their Emulation, found their hearts so bravely pleased in this, that their mind, once moved by the sweet amusement of Art, did not spare itself from taking on the most heavy labor, hoping that it would approach the lovely characteristics of the old masters further and further by an unrestricted imitation;

This is one of the few instances in which Junius uses the latin spelling of the term: Aemulatio. The Latin edition is much shorter in this section of the text. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] The first four chief principles are seen in both the single Painting of one figure and in the multiple Painting that consists of many figures; The Disposition on the other hand tends to take place the most in the multiple Paintings; seen that many and different figures that are thoughtlessly piled up messily in a piece, appear to be nothing but a dark dead confusion of several poorly equivalent things that have light nor life in them, until they have been placed competently and properly in their right place by means of the Art of arrangement.

In the English edition, Junius describes this type of painting as 'pictures (…) consist of one figure'. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] It is certainly so and we believe that a fine and able Artist should above all aim for an experience of natural things: Not that we intend to lock him up in a vault somewhere, to break his head on different Geometrical tests; even less that he would go through the experience of so many contrasting opinions of the natural Philosophers by himself, in order to perfectly understand the true nature of all sorts of passion and movements: This is not the opinion: Because we think it is enough that he finds out through a daily observation how the manifold situations and commotions of our mind change and startle the gesture of our face. Every commotion of our mind, says Cicero {…}, receives a certain feature from nature, which one may interpret as the special and particular feature of this commotion.

CICERO, Marcus Tullius

Junius elaborates on the amount of knowledge an artist has to acquire on subjects like geometry and philosophy in order to understand passions (hartstocht) and emotions (beweging / beroering). He concludes that a certain experience (ervarenheid) is necessary, rather than an in-depth study. This experience can be acquired by means of a close observation (opmerking) of facial expressions (gelaat) and emotions. [MO]

[Suggested translation, Marije Osnabrugge:] Just like the old Artists had a very striking manner of working, as such they had a special gift to imagine the true representation of all sorts of movements of our mind in the most lively way; yes we may also interpret freely, that they would never have filled their works again with such able expressions of the different passions, if they had not have thought it painfully worthful to wisely trace all those natural commotions by which our mind delights and the common appearance of our being is changed varyingly. Zeuxis has made a painting of Penelope, in a way that he appears to have artfully depicted the modesty of her being. Plin. XXXV.9. Timomachus has depicted the raging Aiax, and how he behaved in this outrageous madness Philostr. Lib. II. de vita Apollonii.Cap. 10. Silanion has made the resentful Artist Apollodorus; and as this Apollodorus was a grumpy guy, Silanion did not only cast the Artist himself, but also his stubborn touchiness Plin. XXXIV.8. Protogenes has painted Philiscus, being taken by deep reflections Plin. XXXV.10. Praxiteles has made Phyrne, as if one saw her luxuriant heart bathe in a great see of happiness and lust, Plin. XXXIV.8. Parrhasius made a young man who is walking around in his armour looking for a fight, Plin. ibidem. Philostratus {…} describes a painting to us of a Bacchus who can only be recognized by the heartaches that torture him. These examples illustrate clearly enough, how big a skill the old Masters have had in expressing all sorts of commotions and movements;

PARRHASIUS (Parrhasios)
PHILOSTRATOS
PLINIUS, L'Ancien
PRAXITELES
PROTOGENES
SILANION
TIMOMACHOS
ZEUXIS